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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


VFGHANISTAN 


BY 

ANGUS    HAMILTON 

F.R.G.S. 


\OLLME    XV  I II 


Mm/i 


(1 


m. 


kOv' 


Copyright,  igio 
Bv   J.    B,   MILLET    CO. 


TQE    •    PLIMPTON    ■    PKES3 

[\V  ■  D  •  O] 
KOBWOOD  •  MASS  ■  U  •  S  ■  A. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

1 

II 

III 

IV 
V 
VI 
VII 
VIII 
IX 
X 
XI 
XII 
XIII 
XIV 
XV 
XVI 
XVII 
XVIII 


Editorial  Note ^ 

The  Orenburg -Tashkent  Railway   ...         1 

The  Khanate  of  Bokhara 25 

The  Province  of  Samarkand 36 

The  District  of  Tashkent 42 

The  District  of  Merv ^^ 

From  Tashkent  to  Merv ^4 

The  Northern  Border 

The  Murghab  Valley  Railway     ....     101 
The  Murghab  Valley 1^^ 

Herat  and  the  Western  Border  .     .     . 

Kandahar     

Seistan 

Provinces  and  Races 

Administration,  Laws,  and  Revenue.      . 

Trade,  Industries,  and  Products  .      .     . 

The  Army 

Kabul;  its  Palaces  and  Court  Life  .      . 

Kabul  and  its  Bazaars 

Index      


137 

150 

171 

198 

223 

247 

262 

283 

312 

319 


516573 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

A  Royal  Wedding Frontispiece 

A  City  Scene  in  Afghanistan 32 

Fortifying  a  Position  in  Afghanistan;  Elephants  Razing 

Out-Buildings 128 

The  Citadel,  Kandahar 160 

A  Typical  Watch-Tower 256 

Tomb  of  Aimed  Shah,  Kandahar,  Adjoining  the  Citadel   .  288 


'^i. 


vu 


EDITORIAL  NOTE 

AFGHANISTAN  may  be  called  one  of  the  cock- 
pits of  the  East,  for  it  has  seen  more  bloody- 
battles  since  it  came  into  the  limelight  of  modern 
history  than  any  other  country  of  its  size.  Its  early 
history  is  wrapped  in  mystery  —  its  very  name  has  been 
given  to  it  by  the  outside  world.  The  inhabitants  are 
of  various  races,  but  the  most  of  them  call  themselves 
Afghans.  They  are  bold,  hardy,  warlike,  and  fond  of 
freedom,  restless,  and  turbulent,  and  much  given  to 
plunder.  Both  Russia  and  England  have  long  had 
designs  upon  it,  for  it  forms  one  of  the  gateways  to 
the  Indian  possessions  of  the  latter,  and  most  of  the 
bloodshed  has  been  the  result  of  both  desiring  to  gain  a 
foothold  there. 

Afghanistan  has  been  called  the  "buffer-state"  be- 
tween England's  Indian  Empire  and  Russia,  and  this 
volume  brings  the  account  of  the  movements  of  Russia 
towards  it  down  to  the  present  time. 

But  the  volume  does  more  than  this:  it  describes 
the  natural  features  of  this  wild  and  wonderful  country 
with  its  arid  plains  and  mountain  passes  commanded  by 
forbidding  fortresses,  gives  an  account  of  its  industries 
and  products,  furnishes  pictures  of  its  palaces,  its  court 
life,  and  its  bazaars;  describes  its  administration  and 
its  laws,  and  introduces  the  reader  to  the  intimate 
details  of  a  land  which  has  hitherto  been  practically 
unknown. 

ix 


EDITORIAL    NOTE 

To  the  student  of  world  politics,  this  volume  will  have 
a  special  interest:  Afghanistan  is  part  of  an  arena  in 
which  some  stirring  game  is  always  being  played,  and 
at  any  moment  it  may  become  the  scene  of  events,  which 
may  change  the  current  of  the  world's  history.  The  stu- 
dent of  social  conditions  and  of  social  problems  also  will 
find  much  in  it  that  is  both  interesting  and  valuable. 
The  processes  by  which  the  scattered  races  may  become 
a  consolidated  nation,  or  by  which  they  may  become 
still  more  disintegrated,  offer  a  field  of  speculative  and 
practical  study  which  is  unique.  The  author,  Mr.  Angus 
Hamilton,  has  spent  many  years  in  Oriental  travel 
and  in  studying  conditions  in  Asiatic  countries.  He  is 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  scanty,  and  out-of-the-way, 
literature  dealing  with  this  inaccessible  land,  and  the 
reader  benefits  both  by  the  first-hand  information  gained 
by  travel  and  personal  observations,  and  by  the  second- 
hand knowledge  gained  from  other  authors  who  have 
visited  and  described  the  country. 

Charles  Welsh. 


AFGHANISTAN 


CHAPTER  I 


THE  ORENBURG-TASHKENT  RAILWAY 


B 


Y  a  coincidence  of  singular  interest  in  Central 
Asian  affairs  the  completion  of  the  Oren- 
burg-Tashkent Railway  occurred  simulta- 
neously with  the  evacuation  of  Lhassa  by  the  troops 
of  the  Tibetan  Mission,  the  two  events  measur- 
ing in  a  manner  the  character  of  the  policies  pur- 
sued by  the  respective  Governments  of  Great  Britain 
and  Russia  in  Mid-Asia.  Moreover,  if  consideration 
be  given  to  them  and  the  relation  of  each  to  contem- 
porary affairs  appreciated,  it  becomes  no  longer  pos- 
sible to  question  the  causes  which  have  determined 
the  superior  position  now  held  in  Asia  by  Russia. 
If  this  situation  were  the  result  of  some  sudden 
cataclysm  of  nature  by  which  Russia  had  been 
violently  projected  from  her  territories  in  Europe 
across  the  lone  wastes  of  the  Kirghiz  steppe  into  and 
beyond  the  region  of  the  Pamirs  or  over  the  desert 
sands  of  the  Kara  Kum  to  the  southern  valleys  of 
the  Murghab  River,  the  mastery  of  Central  Asia 
by  Russia  would  be  more  comprehensible.  But  the 
forward  advance  of  Russia  to  the  borders  of  Per- 
sia, along  the  frontiers  of  Afghanistan  to  the  north- 
eastern slopes  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  has  been  gradual; 

1 


AFGHANISTAN 

and  in  order  to  secure  suflficient  momentum  for  her 
descent  railways  were  needed;  and,  while  the  line  so 
lately  completed  between  Orenburg  and  Tashkent 
is  a  more  material  factor  in  the  situation  than  hith- 
erto has  been  recognised,  the  laying  of  the  permanent 
way  between  Samarkand  and  Termes,  Askhabad 
and  Meshed,  approximately  gauges  the  duration  of 
the  interval  separating  Russia  from  the  day  when  she 
will  have  rounded  off  her  position  in  Mid-Asia.  No 
question  of  sentiment,  no  considerations  of  trade 
influenced  the  creation  of  railway  communication 
between  Orenburg  and  Tashkent,  the  construction 
of  the  Murghab  Valley  line  or  the  extension  of 
the  Trans-Caspian  system  from  Samarkand  to  Osh. 
Strategy,  steely  and  calculating,  required  Mid- 
Russia  to  be  linked  with  Mid-Asia,  the  irresistible 
expansion  of  empire  following  not  so  much  the  line 
of  least  resistance  as  the  direction  from  which  it 
would  be  placed  in  position  for  the  next  move.  Con 
tinents  have  been  crossed,  kingdoms  annihilated,  and 
provinces  absorbed  by  Russia  in  her  steady  pro- 
gression towards  the  heart  of  Central  Asia. 

Years  have  passed  since  the  delimitation  of  the 
Russo-Afghan  frontier  and  the  definition  of  the 
Anglo-Russian  spheres  of  influence  in  the  Pamirs 
were  made.  In  the  interval,  beginning  with  the 
acceptance  of  the  findings  of  the  Pamir  Boundary 
Commission  of  1896,  Russia  ostensibly  has  been 
engaged  in  evolving  an  especial  position  for  herself 
in  North  China  and  providing  railway  communi- 
cation between  Port  Arthur,  Vladivostock,  and  St. 

2 


RAILWAY 

Petersburg.  In  this  direction,  too,  war  has  inter- 
vened, coming  as  the  culminating  stroke  to  the 
poHcy  of  bold  aggression  and  niggardly  compromise 
which  distinguished  the  diplomatic  activities  of  Rus- 
sia in  Manchuria.  Yet  throughout  these  ten  years 
the  energies  of  Russia  in  Mid-Asia  have  not  been 
dormant.  Inaction  ill  becomes  the  Colossus  of  the 
North  and  schemes,  which  were  en  Vair  in  1896, 
have  been  pushed  to  completion,  others  of  equal 
enterprise  taking  their  place.  Roads  now  thread 
the  high  valleys  of  the  Pamirs;  forts  crown  the 
ranges  and  the  military  occupation  of  the  region  is 
established.  Similarly,  means  of  access  between  the 
interior  of  the  Bokharan  dominions  and  the  Oxus 
have  been  formed;  caravan  routes  have  been  con- 
verted into  trunk  roads  and  the  services  of  the  camel, 
as  a  mode  of  transport,  have  been  supplemented  by 
the  waggons  of  the  railway  and  military  authorities. 
The  great  importance  attaching  to  the  Orenburg- 
Tashkent  Railway  and  its  especial  significance  at  this 
moment  will  be  appreciated  more  thoroughly  when 
it  is  understood  that  hitherto  the  work  of  maintain- 
ing touch  between  European  Russia  and  the  military 
establishment  of  Russian  Turkestan  devolved  upon 
a  flotilla  of  fourteen  steamers  in  the  Caspian  Sea 
—  an  uncertain,  treacherous  water  at  best  —  and 
the  long,  circuitous  railway  route  via  Moscow  and 
the  Caucasus.  This  necessitated  a  break  of  twenty 
hours  for  the  sea-passage  between  Baku  and  Kras- 
novodsk  before  connection  with  the  Trans-Caspian 
Railway  could  be  secured.     The  military  forces  in 

3 


AFGHANISTAN 

Askhabad,  Merv,  Osh,  and  Tashkent  —  including, 
one  might  add,  the  whole  region  lying  between  the 
south-eastern  slopes  of  the  Pamirs,  Chinese  Turkes- 
tan, the  Russo-Afghan,  and  the  Russo-Persian  fron- 
tiers —  embracing  the  several  Turkestan  Army  Corps, 
were  dependent  upon  a  single  and  interrupted  line. 
Now,  however,  under  the  provision  of  this  supple- 
mentary and  more  direct  Orenburg-Tashkent  route 
the  entire  military  situation  in  Central  Asia  has  been 
dislocated  in  favour  of  whatever  future  disposition 
Russia  may  see  fit  to  adopt.  All  the  great  depots 
of  Southern  and  Central  Russia  —  Odessa,  Sim- 
pheropol,  Kieff,  Kharkoff,  and  Moscow,  in  addition 
to  the  Caucasian  bases  as  a  possible  reserve  of  rein- 
forcements —  are  placed  henceforth  in  immediate 
contact  with  Merv  and  Tashkent,  this  latter  place 
at  once  becoming  the  principal  military  centre  in 
these  regions.  Similarly,  equal  improvement  will  be 
manifested  in  the  position  along  the  Persian  and 
Afghan  borders,  to  which  easy  approach  is  now  ob- 
tained over  the  metals  of  this  new  work  and  for 
which  those  military  stations  —  Askhabad,  Merv, 
Samarkand  —  standing  upon  the  Trans-Caspian 
Railway,  and  Osh  now  serve  as  a  line  of  advanced 
bases.  It  is,  therefore,  essential  to  consider  in  detail 
this  fresh  state  of  affairs;  and  as  knowledge  of  the 
Orenburg-Tashkent  Railway  is  necessary  to  the 
proper  understanding  of  the  position  of  Afghanistan, 
the  follov^'ing  study  of  that  kingdom  is  prefaced  with 
a  complete  description  of  the  Orenburg-Tashkent 
work,  together  with  the  remaining  sections  of  rail- 

4 


RAILWAY 

way  communication  between  Orenburg  and  Kush- 
kinski  Post. 

The  journey  between  St.  Petersburg  and  Orenburg 
covers  1230  miles  and  between  Orenburg  and  Tash- 
kent 1174  miles,  the  latter  line  having  taken  almost 
four  years  to  lay.  Work  began  on  the  northern  sec- 
tion in  the  autumn  of  1900  and  many  miles  of  per- 
manent way  had  been  constructed  before,  in  the 
autumn  of  1901,  a  start  was  made  from  the  south. 
The  two  sections  were  united  in  September  of  1904; 
but  the  northern  was  not  opened  to  general  traffic 
until  July,  nor  the  southern  before  November,  1905. 
Prior  to  the  railway,  communications  were  main- 
tained by  means  of  tarantass  along  the  post-road, 
which  led  from  Aktiubinsk  across  the  Kirghiz  steppes 
via  Orsk  to  Irghiz  and  thence  through  Kazalinsk  to 
Perovski,  where  the  road  passed  through  Turkestan 
to  run  via  Chimkent  to  Tashkent  —  a  journey 
of  nineteen  days.  In  addition  to  the  galloping 
patyorka  and  troika  —  teams  of  five  and  three  horses 
respectively  —  which  were  wont  to  draw  the  vehi- 
cles along  the  post-road  and  the  more  lumbering 
Bactrian  camels,  harnessed  three  abreast  and  used 
in  the  stages  across  the  Kara  Kum,  long,  picturesque 
processions  of  camels,  bound  for  Orenburg  and  car- 
rying cotton  and  wool  from  Osh  and  Andijan,  silks 
from  Samarkand  and  Khiva,  tapestries  from  Kho- 
kand,  lamb's-wool,  skins  and  carpets  from  Bokhara, 
and  dried  fruits  from  Tashkent,  annually  passed 
between  Tashkent  and  Orenburg  from  June  to 
November. 

5 


AFGHANISTAN 

Of  late  years,  the  Trans-Caspian  Railway,  begun 
by  Skobeleff  in  1880  and  gradually  carried  forward 
by  Annenkoff  to  Samarkand,  has  supplanted  the 
once  flourishing  traffic  of  the  post-road,  along  which 
the  passing  of  the  mails  is  now  the  sole  movement. 
The  new  railway,  too,  is  destined  to  eliminate  even 
these  few  links  with  the  past,  although  in  the  end 
it  may  revive  the  prosperity  of  the  towns  which 
through  lack  of  the  former  trade  have  shrunk  in  size 
and  diminished  in  importance.  The  line  does  not 
exactly  follow  the  postal  route;  but  from  Orenburg, 
which  is  the  terminus  of  the  railway  from  Samara  on 
the  Trans-Siberian  system,  it  crosses  the  Ural  River 
to  Iletsk  on  the  Ilek,  a  tributary  of  the  Ural.  From 
Iletsk  the  metals  run  via  Aktiubinsk  and  Kazalinsk 
along  the  Syr  Daria  Valley  via  Perovski  to  Turkes- 
tan and  thence  to  the  terminus  at  Tashkent. 

Originally  one  of  three  suggested  routes,  the  Oren- 
burg-Tashkent road  was  the  more  desirable  because 
the  more  direct.  Alternative  schemes  in  favour  of 
connecting  the  Trans-Siberian  with  the  Central  Asian 
Railway  on  one  hand  and  the  Saratoff-Uralsk  Rail- 
way with  the  Central  Asian  Railway  on  the  other 
were  submitted  to  the  commission  appointed  to 
select  the  route.  Prudence  and  sentiment,  as  well 
as  the  absence  of  any  physical  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  prompt  construction,  tempered  the  resolution 
of  the  tribunal  in  favour  of  the  old  post-track.  It 
was  begun  at  once  and  pushed  to  completion  wdthin 
four  years  —  a  feat  impossible  to  accomplish  in  the 
case  of  either  of  the  two  rival  schemes.     The  former 

6 


RAILWAY 

of  these,  costly,  elaborate,  and  ambitious,  sought  to 
connect  Tashkent  with  Semipalatinsk,  the  head  of 
the  steamboat  service  on  the  Irtish  River,  2000 
miles  away, via  Aulie-ata,  Verni,  and  Kopal.  Passing 
between  the  two  lakes  Issyk  and  Balkash  alternative 
routes  were  suggested  for  its  direction  from  Semi- 
palatinsk: the  one  securing  a  connection  with  the 
Trans-Siberian  system  at  Omsk,  the  other  seeking 
to  pass  along  the  post-road  to  Barnaul,  terminating 
at  Obi  where  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  bridges  the 
Obi  River.  The  supporters  of  the  scheme,  which 
aimed  at  uniting  the  Saratoff-Uralsk  Railway  with 
the  Central  Asian  Railway,  proposed  to  carry  the 
line  beyond  Uralsk  to  Kungrad,  a  fishing  village  in 
close  proximity  to  the  efflux  of  the  Amu  Daria  and 
the  Aral  Sea.  From  Kungrad,  passing  east  of  Khiva, 
the  line  would  have  traversed  the  Black  Sands  fol- 
lowing a  straight  line  and  breaking  into  the  Cen- 
tral Asian  system  at  Charjui,  opposite  which,  at 
Farab,  a  line  to  Termes  via  Kelif  has  been  pro- 
jected; and  where,  too,  an  iron  girder  bridge,  resting 
on  nineteen  granite  piers,  spans  the  Amu  Daria.  It 
is  useless  at  this  date  to  weigh  the  balance  between 
the  several  schemes;  one  of  which,  the  Orenburg- 
Tashkent  route,  has  become  an  accomplished  fact 
to  provide,  doubtless  in  the  near  future,  matter  for 
immediate  concern. 

From  Orenburg,  of  which  the  population  is  80,000, 
the  line  4  versts  ^  from  the  station  crosses  the  Ural 
River  by  an  iron  bridge,  160  sagenes  ^  in  length,  run- 

1 1  Verst  =  3  mile  English.  *  1  Sagene  =  7  feet  English. 

7 


AFGHANISTAN 

ning  from  there  south  to  Iletsk,  formerly  the  fortress 
Iletskaya  Zashchita  and  at  present  a  sub-district 
town  of  the  Orenburg  Government  with  a  population 
of  12,000. 

From  Iletsk  a  short  branch  line,  rather  more  than 
three  versts  in  length,  proceeds  to  the  Iletsk  salt 
mines.  Running  eastwards  and  crossing  the  Ilek 
River  from  the  right  to  the  left  bank  by  an  iron 
bridge  105  sagenes  in  length  it  reaches  Aktiubinsk, 
a  district  town  in  Turhai  Province.  At  this  stage 
the  railway  traverses  the  main  watershed  of  the  Ural, 
Temir,  Kubele,  and  Embi  Rivers,  arriving  at  the 
Kum  Asu  Pass  across  the  Mugodjarski  Range.  The 
passage  of  the  line  through  the  mountains,  extend- 
ing 26  versts  and  a  veritable  triumph  of  engineering, 
imposed  a  severe  test  upon  the  constructive  ability  of 
the  railway  staff.  Beyond  the  range  the  line  turns 
southw^ard  following  the  valleys  of  the  Bolshoi, 
Mali  Karagandi,  and  Kuljur  Rivers  until,  600  versts 
from  Orenburg,  it  arrives  at  Lake  Tchelkar.  The 
line  now  runs  across  the  Bolshiye  and  Maliye  Bar- 
suki  sands,  where  there  is  abundance  of  undergound 
fresh  water,  to  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Sari 
Tchegonak  Inlet  on  the  Aral  Sea,  where  it  descends 
to  sea-level  moving  along  the  north-eastern  shore. 
The  military  depot  at  Kazalinsk  —  sometimes  called 
Fort  No.  1  —  now  approaches.  This  point  founded 
in  1854  has  lost  its  exclusive  military  character, 
ranking  merely  among  the  district  centres  of  the  Syr 
Daria  Province.  Thirty-six  versts  from  Kazalinsk, 
at  the  next  station,  Mai  Libash,  situated  in  a  locality 

8 


RAILWAY 

quite  suitable  for  colonisation,  a  branch  line,  4  versts 
in  length,  links  up  the  important  water-way  of  the 
Syr  Daria  with  the  Orenburg-Tashkent  system,  ex- 
tending the  facilities  of  the  railway  to  shipping  which 
may  be  delayed  through  stress  of  bad  weather  in  the 
gulf  or  through  inadequacy  of  the  draught  over  the 
bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

The  main  line  keeps  to  the  Syr  Daria,  running 
through  the  steppe  along  the  post-road  to  Karmak- 
chi  or  Fort  No.  2.  On  leaving  Karmakchi  it  diverges 
from  the  post-road  to  wind  round  a  succession  of 
lakes  and  marshes  which  lie  at  a  distance  of  50  versts 
from  the  river.  The  railway  continuing  its  original 
direction  now  runs  along  the  basins  of  the  Syr  Daria 
and  the  Karauzyak,  a  tributary  which  it  crosses  twice 
by  small  bridges,  each  constructed  with  two  spans 
60  sagenes  in  length.  The  character  of  the  country 
from  Karmakchi  to  Perovski,  a  distance  of  138  versts, 
differs  considerably  from  the  region  preceding  it. 
The  low-lying  ground,  broken  by  swamps,  is  every- 
where covered  with  a  thick  overgrowth  of  reeds; 
while  the  more  elevated  parts,  watered  by  ariks,  are 
devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  crops.  The  town  of 
Perovski  is  situated  in  flat  country  IJ  versts  from 
the  station.  From  there  to  Djulek  the  line  returns 
to  the  post-road  and  some  distance  from  the  Syr 
Daria  passes  between  the  river  and  the  Ber  Kazan 
Lakes  to  Ber  Kazan.  At  Djulek,  the  name  being 
adopted  from  a  small  adjacent  hamlet,  it  diverges 
from  the  post-road  to  run  direct  to  the  village  of 
Skobelevski,  one  of  those  curious  peasant  settlements 

9 


AFGHANISTAN 

which  located  in  the  uttermost  parts  of  Central  Asia 
preserve  in  their  smallest  detail  every  characteristic 
of  remote  Russia.  At  such  a  place  life  savours  so 
strongly  of  the  Middle  Ages  that  one  scarcely  heeds 
the  purely  modern  significance  which  attaches  to  the 
Iron  Horse. 

Barely  30  versts  from  Skobelevski  and  situated 
close  to  the  Syr  Daria,  there  is  the  station  of  Tumen 
Arik,  which  gives  place  to  Turkestan,  beyond  which 
for  120  versts  the  line  runs  parallel  with  the  post- 
road.  The  station  is  2 J  versts  to  the  north  of  the 
tow^n  of  Turkestan,  one  of  the  most  important  towns 
in  the  Syr  Daria  Province  and  only  40  versts  from 
the  Syr  Daria.  The  next  station,  Ikan,  is  associated 
with  the  conquest  of  Turkestan,  a  famous  battle 
having  been  fought  about  the  scene  w^here  the  station 
buildings  now  stand.  Twenty  versts  to  the  north  of 
the  station,  close  to  the  post-road,  there  is  a  memo- 
rial to  Ural  Cossacks  who  fell  during  the  fight. 
Otrar,  the  following  station,  is  identified  with  the 
tradition,  derived  from  the  existence  of  an  enormous 
mound  standing  amid  the  ruins  of  the  old-time  city 
of  Otrar,  that  Timur,  when  his  army  crossed  the  Syr 
Daria,  ordered  each  of  his  soldiers  to  throw  a  hand- 
ful of  earth  upon  the  ground  at  the  point  where  the 
river  was  crossed  in  safety.  Beyond  Otrar  the  line 
runs  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Aris  River,  crossing 
it  at  1570  versts  from  Orenburg  by  a  bridge  of  90 
sagenes  in  three  spans  of  30  sagenes  each.  Aris  sta- 
tion is  placed  further  along  the  river  bank  at  a  point 
where  at  some  future  date  branch  lines  between  it 

10 


RAILWAY 

and  the  town  of  Verni,  as  well  as  to  a  junction  with 
the  Trans-Siberian  system,  will  be  laid.  After  leav- 
ing it,  the  railway,  still  ascending,  ultimately  crosses 
the  pass  of  Sari  Agatch  in  the  Kizi  Kurt  Range,  267 
sagenes  above  the  sea. 

The  descent  from  the  pass  leads  to  Djilgi  Valley 
where  the  line  crosses  three  bridges;  passing  over  the 
Keless  River  by  a  single-span  bridge  of  25  sagenes, 
over  the  Bos-su  arik  by  a  bridge  of  18  sagenes,  and 
over  the  Salar  River  by  a  bridge  of  12  sagenes.  Sev- 
enty-two versts  further,  the  line  runs  into  its  termi- 
nus at  Tashkent  which  is  now  classed  as  a  station  of 
the  first  degree,  although  commercially  it  stands  only 
sixth  among  the  stations  of  the  Central  Asian  Rail- 
way ranking  with  Andijan  and  yielding  priority  of 
place  to  Krasnovodsk,  Samarkand,  Khokand,  Ask- 
habad,  and  Bokhara.  It  is  proposed  at  Tashkent, 
which  lies  1762  versts  from  Orenburg,  1747  versts 
from  Krasnovodsk,  and  905  versts  from  Merv,  and 
where  it  is  evident  that  the  needs  of  the  railway  have 
been  carefully  studied,  to  double  the  track  between 
Orenburg  and  Tashkent.  Large  stocks  of  spare  rails 
and  railway  plant  are  held  in  reserve  in  sheds,  one 
important  feature  of  this  very  efficient  preparation 
being  the  possession  of  20  versts  of  light  military  rail- 
way. The  erection  of  engine-sheds,  waggon-sheds, 
workshops,  supply  stores,  and  quarters  for  the  staff 
has  followed  a  most  elaborate  scale,  these  buildings 
being  arranged  in  three  groups  around  the  station. 
The  railway  medical  staff  and  the  subordinate  traffic 
and  traction  officials  occupy  the  first;  the  chiefs  of 

11 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  traffic,  telegraph,  and  traction  departments  are 
in  possession  of  the  second ;  the  remaining  employees 
securing  accommodation  in  the  third  set  of  buildings 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  Station  Square.  Along 
the  opposite  face  are  the  spacious  workshops  where 
between  five  and  six  hundred  men  find  daily  employ- 
ment; in  juxtaposition  with  the  general  depot  are 
the  railway  hospital,  where  there  is  accommodation 
for  10  beds,  the  main  supply  stores  and  a  naphtha 
reservoir  with  a  capacity  of  50,000  poods. ^ 

The  country  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Tashkent  as 
seen  from  the  railway  presents  the  picture  of  a  boun- 
tiful oasis.  For  20  versts  there  is  no  interruption 
to  a  scene  of  wonderful  fertility.  Market  gardens, 
smiling  vineyards,  and  fruitful  orchards,  not  to  men- 
tion cotton-fields  and  corn  lands,  cover  the  landscape. 
This  abundance  in  a  measure  is  due  to  careful  irriga- 
tion and  to  the  excellent  system  of  conserving  water 
which  has  been  introduced.  In  support  of  this,  113 
specific  works  have  been  completed,  each  of  which 
—  and  the  giant  total  includes  water-pipes  by  the 
mile  and  innumerable  aqueducts  —  was  a  component 
part  of  that  scheme  of  irrigation  by  which  life  in 
Central  Asia  alone  can  be  made  possible. 

Although  work  upon  the  Orenburg-Tashkent  line 
began  in  1900  immediately  after  the  completion  of 
the  original  survey,  wherever  more  careful  examina- 
tion has  shown  an  advantage  to  be  possible  altera- 
tions have  been  made.  The  cost  of  construction, 
estimated   at  70,000   roubles'   per  verst,  has  been 

*  1  pood  =  36  lbs.  *  1  rouble  =  two  shillings. 

12 


RAILWAY 

materially  lessened  by  these  means  —  a  reduction 
of  24  versts  equally  divided  between  the  Orenburg 
and  Kazalinsk,  Kazalinsk  and  Tashkent  sections 
having  been  effected.  By  comparison  with  the  old 
post-road  the  railway  is  much  the  shorter  of  the  two 
lines  of  communication,  the  advantage  in  its  favour 
amounting  to  134  versts  on  one  section  of  the  road 
alone ;  the  actual  length  between  Tashkent  and  Kaza- 
linsk being  by  post-road  953 J  versts  and  by  railway 
819i. 

In  its  local  administration  the  railway  is  divided 
into  four  sections: 

No.  1.  From  Orenburg  to  the  Mugodjarski  Moun- 
tains about  400  versts. 

No.  2.  From  Mugodjarski  Mountains  to  the  sands 
of  Bolshiye  Barsuki,  400  to  560  versts. 

No.  3.  From  the  sands  of  Bolshiye  Barsuki  to 
Kazalinsk,  560  to  845  versts. 

No.  4.  From  Kazalinsk  to  Tashkent,  845  to  1762 
versts. 

In  the  northern  section  the  line  is  supplied  every- 
where with  fresh  water  —  in  the  first  instance  from 
the  Ural  River  and  then  by  the  smaller  rivers,  Don- 
guz,  Elshanka,  Ilek,  Kulden,  Kubele,  Temir,  and 
Embi;  Koss  Lake,  and  finally  from  wells. 

Here  are  the  Iletsk  mines,  famous  for  their  rock 
salt.  They  despatch  annually  to  Orenburg  more 
than  1,500,000  poods  of  salt.  The  deposits  cover  a 
field  4  versts  in  extent  with  an  unvarying  thickness 
of  more  than  85  sagenes.  The  section  now  in  work- 
ing contains  100  milliard  poods  of  salt,     The  annual 

13 


AFGHANISTAN 

yield  may  be  reckoned  at  7,000,000  poods.  At  the 
present  time  considerable  less  than  this  output  is 
obtained,  the  high  freight  charges  upon  land-carried 
goods  and  the  insufficiency  of  the  labour  available 
being  responsible  for  the  disproportion. 

In  another  direction,  the  Iletsk  district  is  of 
importance;  the  veterinary  station  Temir  Utkul, 
through  which  pass  large  herds  of  cattle  on  their  way 
to  Orenburg  from  the  Ural  Province,  having  been 
established  there.  In  the  course  of  the  year  many 
thousands  of  cattle  are  examined  by  the  surgeons 
of  the  Veterinary  Board  —  the  existence  of  the 
numerous  cattle-sheds  and  the  constant  arrival  of 
the  droves  adding  to  the  noise  and  bustle  of  Iletsk, 
if  not  exactly  increasing  its  gaiety.  Further  on,  in 
the  Aktiubinsk  district  of  the  Turgai  Province  and 
along  the  whole  valley  of  the  Ilek  River,  where 
much  of  the  land  is  under  cultivation,  wide  belts 
are  given  over  to  the  pasturage  of  these  travelling 
mobs  of  cattle.  Upon  both  banks  of  the  river,  too, 
there  are  Kirghiz  villages. 

From  an  agricultural  point  of  view  this  locality, 
on  account  of  its  paucity  of  population  and  fertile 
soil,  is  regarded  with  high  favour  by  the  immigration 
authorities.  In  the  town  of  Aktiubinsk  itself  there  is 
a  yearly  market  of  cattle,  corn,  manufactures,  and 
agricultural  implements.  This  as  a  rule  returns  a 
quarter  of  a  million  roubles.  Now  that  the  railway 
has  been  completed  and  opened  to  passenger  and 
commercial  traffic,  it  is  expected  that  it  will  give  an 
immediate  impetus  to  this  region  and  that  it  will 

14 


RAILWAY 

be  possible  to  carry  out  a  more  careful  examination 
of  its  mining  resources,  of  which  at  the  present  time 
there  are  only  indications.  Copper  has  been  traced 
along  the  Burt,  Burl,  Khabd,  and  Kutchuk  Sai  Riv- 
ers; deposits  of  coal  have  been  found  near  the 
Maloi  Khabd,  Teress  Butak,  and  Yakshi  Kargach 
Rivers;  iron  has  been  located  by  the  Burt  River 
and  naphtha  on  the  Djus  River;  while  there  is  rea- 
son to  believe  that  gold  exists  in  the  vicinity. 

On  the  second  section,  the  line  derives  its  water 
from  springs  in  the  Djaksi  Mountains,  the  basin  of 
the  Kuljur  River,  the  Khoja  and  Tchelkar  Lakes. 
It  abounds  with  Kirghiz  villages  but  minerals  do  not 
play  an  important  part  in  it.  A  few  seams  of  coal 
are  believed  to  exist  in  the  ravine  of  the  Alabass 
stream;  and  there  are  lodestone  mines  in  the  Djaman 
Mountains  and  in  the  Kin  Asu  defile.  Cattle-farm- 
ing is  more  remunerative  to  the  local  settlers  than 
cereal  production;  as  a  consequence  there  is  very 
little  cultivation. 

On  the  third  section,  which  extends  from  the  sands 
of  Bolshiye  Barsuki  to  Kazalinsk,  covering  an  area 
of  285  versts,  the  water-supply  is  obtained  at  first 
from  shallow  surface  wells;  but  45  versts  from  Kaz- 
alinsk the  railway  enters  the  Syr  Daria  Valley, 
where  water  is  abundant.  The  southern  areas  of 
this  belt  alone  possess  any  commercial  importance, 
owing  to  Kirghiz  from  the  northern  part  of  the  Irgiz 
district  who,  to  the  number  of  some  10,000  kibitkas, 
winter  there.  The  northern  part  is  largely  the  con- 
tinuation of  a  sparse  steppe.     The  Kazalinsk  district, 

15 


AFGHANISTAN 

beyond  which  the  Orenburg-Tashkent  Railway  enters 
Turkestan,  is  one  of  the  least  important  divisions  of 
the  Syr  Daria  Province. 

Around  Kazalinsk  itself,  however,  there  has  been 
but  little  agricultural  activity.  In  the  main,  devel- 
opment is  confined  to  the  fertile  Agerskski  Valley 
and  along  the  Kuban  Daria,  a  tributary  of  the  Syr 
Daria.  The  return  is  meagre  and  the  population 
has  not  suflScient  corn  for  its  own  needs.  Large 
quantities  of  grain  are  annually  imported  into  the 
neighbourhood  from  the  Amu  Daria  district  by  boat 
across  the  Aral  Sea  or  by  camel  caravan.  Railway 
traflSc  in  this  section  nevertheless  will  not  rely  upon 
the  carriage  of  cereal  produce  —  live  stock,  w^hich 
until  the  advent  of  the  railway  was  sent  to  Orenburg 
by  boat  along  the  Syr  Daria  and  then  by  caravan- 
road  to  the  city,  representing  the  prospective  return 
which  the  district  will  bring  to  the  line. 

The  revenue  of  Kazalinsk  is  21,880  roubles.  The 
town  contains  the  residences  of  a  district  governor 
and  an  inspector  of  fisheries,  together  with  district 
military  headquarters,  the  administrative  oflfices  of 
the  treasury  and  the  district  court,  besides  a  district 
hospital  and  a  public  library.  There  are  no  hotels. 
In  early  days  in  the  conquest  of  Turkestan,  when 
the  Kazalinsk  road  served  as  the  only  line  of  com- 
munication with  European  Russia,  the  town  be- 
came a  busy  mart  for  Orenburg,  Tashkent,  Khiva, 
and  Bokhara;  even  now  the  Kirghiz  in  the  dis- 
trict possess  770,000  head  of  cattle.  Trade  was 
obliterated   by  the  advent    of    the   Central  Asian 

16 


RAILWAY 

Railway;  but  it  is  hoped  that  now  the  Oren- 
burg-Tashkent line  has  been  opened  to  traffic  it 
may  revive. 

The  \allage  of  Karmakchi,  which  is  situated  on 
the  banks  of  the  Syr  Daria,  is  another  point  in  this 
district.  It  boasts  only  a  small  population,  in  all 
some  300  odd,  an  Orthodox  church,  post  and  tele- 
graph office,  two  schools,  hospital,  and  military  base 
office.  Importance  attaches  to  the  post  as  it  is  upon 
the  high  road  along  which  is  conducted  the  winter 
trek  of  the  Kirghiz. 

The  value  of  the  annual  export  trade  of  the  region 
is: 

EXPORTS 


[fSheepI    200,000 

1  Camel  J 


2,000,000 


Wool  ^ 

Hides 150,000 

Lard 150,000. 

CatUe    400,000 

The  value  of  the  annual  import  trade  amounts  to: 

IMPORTS 

MERCHANDISE  VALUE 

110,000  poods 1,800,000  roubles 

With  the  opening  of  the  line  to  traffic  the  transpor- 
tation of  fish  by  the  railway  has  shown  a  tendency  to 
increase.  It  is  believed  that  the  development  of  the 
fishing  industry  throughout  the  Aral  basin  is  only 
a  matter  of  time.  At  present  the  yearly  catch  of 
fish  there  reaches  a  total  of  300,000  poods,  of  which 
not  less  than  one-half  is  sent  to  Orenburg,  the  trade 
realising  about  1,000,000  roubles.    Hitherto  little  has 

17 


AFGHANISTAN 

been  attempted.  With  the  assistance  of  the  railway 
a  speedy  expansion  of  the  trade  is  assured  —  the 
interests  of  the  fishing  population  and  the  general 
welfare  of  the  river  traflSc  having  been  advanced 
through  the  construction  of  a  harbour  upon  the  gulf 
of  Sari  Cheganak,  in  connection  with  the  railway 
and  only  five  versts  distant.  Aral  Sea,  the  station 
at  this  point,  is  790  versts  from  Orenburg. 

The  fourth  and  last  division,  from  Kazalinsk  to 
Tashkent,  runs  along  the  valley  of  the  Syr  Daria. 
It  is  fully  supplied  with  good  water  and  possesses  a 
larger  population  than  either  the  second  or  the  third 
sections.  In  it  the  line  traverses  the  following  dis- 
tricts of  the  Syr  Daria  Province: 

DISTRICT  AREA  POFDLATION 

Perovski 95,965  sq.  versts  133,784 

Chimkent 100,808      "      "  285,180 

Tashkent   40.380     "      "  500.015 

The  Perovski  district,  notwithstanding  the  good 
qualities  of  its  soil,  produces  very  little  corn;  its  chief 
population  consists  of  nomadic  Kirghiz  who  together 
own  990,000  head  of  cattle,  the  export  cattle  trade 
for  the  district  amounting  to  2,000,000  roubles 
annually.  Small  tracts  of  wheat  and  millet  are  cul- 
tivated here  and  there  with  the  aid  of  tchigirs,  native 
watering-pumps.  The  water  is  brought  up  from  the 
river  by  means  of  a  wheel,  along  the  rim  of  which 
are  fixed  earthenware  jugs  or  cylindrical  vessels  of 
sheet  iron.  These  vessels  raise  the  water  to  the 
height  of  the  bank,  whence  it  is  very  readily  dis- 
tributed.    The  best  corn  lands  are  situated  in  the 

18 


RAILWAY 

Djulek  sub-district;  but  the  primitive  methods  of 
agriculture  existing  amongst  the  nomads,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  deficiencies  in  the  irrigation  system, 
explain  at  once  the  lack  of  cereal  development  in 
these  areas. 

Perovski  was  taken  by  Count  Perovski  on  July 
28,  1853,  and  in  honour  of  the  occasion  by  Imperial 
order  the  fortress  was  renamed  Fort  Perovski.  Close 
to  the  town  there  is  a  memorial  to  the  Russian  sol- 
diers who  fell  during  that  engagement. 

The  present  population  comprises: 

MALES  FEMALES  TOTAL 

3197  1969  5166 

Orthodox  Russians     lOaO     Jews   130 

Dissenters 210    Tartars      450 

Sarts  and  Kirghiz     3326 

together  with  district  administrative  offices  similar  to 
those  established  at  Kazalinsk.  The  water-supply 
is  drawn  from  the  Syr  Daria  by  means  of  wells. 
There  are  no  hotels.  The  town  revenue  is  only 
12,350  roubles;  although  the  importation  of  various 
goods  from  Russia  into  the  Perovski  district  repre- 
sents an  annual  sum  of  2,900,000  roubles.  With  the 
advent  of  the  Central  Asian  Railway  the  commercial 
importance  of  Perovski,  once  a  point  through  which 
caravans  destined  for  Orenburg  or  Tashkent  passed, 
waned.  Now  its  trade  is  dependent  upon  the  numer- 
ous Tartars  and  Ural  Cossacks  who  have  settled 
there.  The  place  is  unhealthy,  and  the  settlement 
is  affected  by  the  malaria  arising  from  the  marshes 
which  surround  it.     In  spring  and  summer  the  la- 

19 


AFGHANISTAN 

goons  swarm  with  myriads  of  mosquitoes  and  horse- 
flics;  so  great  is  the  plague  that  the  Kirghiz  together 
with  their  flocks  and  herds  after  wintering  along  the 
Syr  Daria  beat  a  hurried  retreat  into  the  steppe, 
dri\'en  off  by  the  tiresome  insects.  Many  months 
elapse  before  the  nomads  return;  it  is  not  until  the 
cold  weather  has  set  in  that  they  appear  in  any 
numbers.  Quite  close  to  Perovski  there  are  two  im- 
migrant villages  —  Alexandrovski  and  Novo  Astra- 
khanski  —  erected  in  1895,  where  the  inhabitants 
are  occupied  with  cattle-farming  and  the  sale  of 
hay  in  winter  time  to  the  Kirghiz.  The  district 
possesses  nothing  save  a  pastoral  population  and  a 
small  settlement  of  200  souls  at  Djulek.  This  place, 
formerly  a  fortress  founded  in  1861  and  now  half 
destroyed  by  the  floods  of  the  Syr  Daria,  contains 
the  administrative  offices  of  the  commissioner  of  the 
section,  with  a  postal  and  telegraphic  bureau  and  a 
native  school.  To  the  south  of  Djulek  there  is 
Skobelevski,  another  small  village  founded  by  immi- 
grants in  1895  and  containing  some  56  houses.  It 
is  watered  by  the  Tchilli  arik.  Skobelevski  is  rapidly 
developing  into  a  trade-mart,  the  source  of  its  good 
fortune  being  contained  in  the  advantageous  position 
which  it  fills  in  the  steppe.  Throughout  this  region, 
plots  of  land  with  a  good  quality  soil  and  well  watered 
have  been  granted  to  colonists. 

The  Chimkent  district  similarly  possesses  a  rich 
and  fertile  soil,  derived  in  the  main  from  its  network 
of  irrigating  canals.  Its  population  is  more  numerous 
than   other  adjacent   settlements  and   it   supports 

20 


RAILWAY 

altogether  17  immigrant  villages  with  a  population 
of  5135.  Chimkent  contains  in  itself  all  the  fea- 
tures necessary  to  the  development  of  a  wide  belt 
of  agriculture;  but  at  the  present  time  the  most 
extensive  tracts  of  wheat  land  are  along  the  systems 
of  the  Aris,  Aksu,  Badam,  Buraldai,  Burdjar,  Tcha- 
yan,  and  Bugun  Rivers.  In  the  valley  of  the  Arisi, 
along  the  middle  reaches,  there  are  rice-fields;  and 
in  the  country  round  Chimkent  the  cotton  industry 
has  begun  to  develop.  Experiments  are  being  tried 
in  the  cultivation  of  beet-root,  as  the  soil  and  climatic 
conditions  of  the  district  are  especially  favourable 
to  its  growth.  The  present  quality  of  the  Chimkent 
beet-root  is  not  inferior  to  that  grown  in  the  Kharkoff 
Government;  so  that  Chimkent  may  well  become, 
in  the  near  future,  the  centre  of  a  sugar-producing 
industry,  not  only  for  Turkestan  but  for  the  whole 
of  Central  Asia,  which  so  far  has  imported  its  sugar 
exclusively  from  European  Russia. 

The  district  town  of  Chimkent,  formerly  a  Kho- 
kand  fortress  taken  by  the  Russian  forces  under  the 
command  of  General  Chernaieff,  September  22, 1864, 
lies  upon  the  eastern  side  of  the  railway.  Its  popu- 
lation comprises: 


MALES 

FEMALES 

TOTAL 

6887 

5554 

12,441 

Orthodox  Russians  . . . . 

768     Jews  .... 

150 

Natives 11,523 

Government  offices  similar  to  those  in  other  towns 
are  also  found. 

The  town  revenue  is  11,760  roubles. 

21 


AFGHANISTAN 

The  trade  returns  of  the  Chimkent  district  amount 
to  5,000,000  roubles. 

Through  Chimkent  passes  a  road  from  Tashkent 
to  Verni.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  district  the 
line  runs  close  to  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  town  of 
Sauran  and  the  fortress  of  Vani  Kurgan,  from  where 
it  proceeds  to  Turkestan.  This  was  occupied  in  1864 
by  the  Russian  forces  under  the  command  of  General 
Verevkin. 

Turkestan  is  situated  40  versts  to  the  east  of  the 
right  bank  of  the  Syr  Daria,  at  a  height  of  102 
sagenes  above  sea-level.  It  is  watered  by  canals 
diverted  from  springs  and  small  rivers  which  flow 
from  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Kara  Mountains. 
The  combined  population  of  the  place  comprises: 

MALES  FEMALES  TOTAL 

7624  6461  14,085 

Orthodox  Russians     441     Jews     460 

Dissenters    31     Natives 13,153 

The  outward  appearance  of  the  town  is  extremely 
handsome.  There  is  much  vegetation,  many  wide 
streets,  and  large  open  spaces. 

There  are: 

RUSSIAN    QUARTEB  NATIVE   QUARTEB 

Houses   73  Houses     2140 

Orthodox  churches       ....  2  Schools 5 

Synagogues    2  Native  schools   22 

Mosques 58  Medresse     1 

Military  hospital      1 

together  with  the  administrative  bureau  of  the  sec- 
tional commissioner,  besides  district  military  head- 


RAILWAY 

quarters,  a  district  court,  and  a  post  and  telegraph 
office. 

In  respect  of  trade  Turkestan  occupies  a  promi- 
nent place.  The  great  bulk  of  the  raw  products  of 
the  nomad  cattle-farming  industry  is  brought  to  it 
for  the  purpose  of  exchanging  with  articles  of  Rus- 
sian manufacture.  The  yearly  returns  of  the  bazaars 
amount  to  4,000,000  roubles;  an  increase  upon  this 
sum  is  expected  now  that  in  the  Karatavski  Moun- 
tains, which  are  close  at  hand,  lead  mines  have  been 
discovered.     The  town  revenue  is  19,350  roubles. 

The  Tashkent  district  is  more  densely  populated 
and  possesses  a  more  productive  soil  than  Chimkent. 
The  mineral  resources,  too,  present  greater  promise 
while  the  trade  returns  reach  a  total  of  50,000,000 
roubles  a  year.  Merchandise  comes  from  Siberia  into 
Orenburg  and  Tashkent;  while,  in  addition,  there 
are  the  local  products  and  those  from  the  interior 
of  European  Russia.  The  line  serves,  also,  as  the 
shortest  route  between  Tashkent  and  the  rich  corn 
region  at  Chelyabinsk  and  Kurgan.  Undoubtedly 
it  will  assist  to  supply  the  whole  of  Turkestan  with 
Siberian  corn,  thereby  setting  free  some  of  the 
land  now  under  corn  for  the  cultivation  of  cotton. 
Further,  it  connects  Tashkent  with  the  centre  of  the 
mining  industry  in  the  Ural  Mountains;  and  dense 
streams  of  Russian  colonisation  and  trade  pass  by 
it  into  the  heart  of  Central  Asia. 

The  prosperity  introduced  both  into  Orenburg  and 
Tashkent  by  the  creation  of  railway  comnmnication 
between  these  two  centres  will  exercise  a  very  bene- 

23 


AFGHANISTAN 

ficial  effect  upon  the  capacity  of  their  markets. 
Already  improvement  has  been  marked,  the  flow  of 
fresh  trade  through  these  new  channels  following 
closely  upon  the  advance  of  the  construction  parties. 
The  period  available  for  statistics  does  not  represent 
the  effect  of  the  new  railway  upon  local  trade. 

The  passenger  traffic  into  Tashkent  over  the  Cen- 
tral Asian  line  was: 

1901 

ARRIVAI.S  DEPARTURES 

48,515  47,213 

During  the  few  years  which  have  elapsed  since  the 
figures  were  compiled  the  Orenburg-Tashkent  Rail- 
way has  been  opened,  this  happy  accomplishment 
at  once  becoming  a  factor  of  the  greatest  economic 
importance  in  the  commerce  of  Central  Asia. 


24 


CHAPTER   II 

THE   KHANATE    OF    BOKHARA 

THE  Khanate  of  Bokhara,  across  wliich  lies 
the  direct  Hne  of  any  advance  upon  Afghan- 
istan, is  the  most  important  of  the  Russian 
protected  states  in  Central  Asia.  It  is  situated  in 
the  basin  of  the  Amu  Daria  between  the  provinces 
of  Trans-Caspia  on  the  west,  of  Samarkand  and 
Ferghana  on  the  north  and  east;  while^  in  the  south, 
the  course  of  the  Oxus  separates,  along  500  versts 
of  the  frontier,  the  dominions  of  Bokhara  from  those 
of  Afghanistan. 

The  area  occupied  by  Bokhara,  including  the  sub- 
territories  Darwaz,  Roshan,  and  Shignan  situated 
upon  the  western  slopes  of  the  Pamirs,  amounts  to 
80,000  square  miles,  over  which  in  the  western  part 
certain  salt  marshes  and  desolate  stretches  of  sandy 
desert  extend.  The  eastern  area  is  confined  by  the 
rugged  chains  of  the  Alai  and  Trans-Alai  systems, 
the  Hissar  Mountains,  the  immediate  prolongation  of 
the  Alai  Range  and  crowned  with  perpetual  snow, 
attaining  considerable  altitude.  This  group  divides 
the  basins  of  the  Zerafshan  and  Kashka  Daria  from 
the  basin  of  the  Amu  Daria.  The  rivers  of  Bokhara 
belong  to  the  Amu  Daria  system,  the  Oxus  flowing 

25 


AFGHANISTAN 

for  490  versts  through  the  Khanate  itself.  Constant 
demands  for  purposes  of  irrigation  are  made  upon 
its  waters,  as  well  as  upon  the  waters  of  its  many 
tributaries,  a  fact  which  rapidly  exhausts  the  lesser 
streams.  In  the  western  portion  of  the  Khanate  the 
Zerafshan  River  is  the  great  artery;  and  although  it 
possesses  a  direct  stream  only  214  versts  in  length 
it  supplies  a  system  of  canals,  the  aggregate  length 
of  which  amounts  to  more  than  1000  versts.  These 
again  are  divided  to  supply  a  further  thousand  chan- 
nels, from  which  the  water  actually  used  for  irri- 
gating the  various  settlements  and  fields  is  finally 
drawn.  The  second  most  important  river  in  the 
western  part  of  the  Khanate  is  the  Kashka  Daria, 
which  waters  the  vast  oases  of  Shakhri,  Syabz,  and 
Karshine.  In  the  eastern  areas  numerous  streams 
are  fed  by  the  snows  and  glaciers  of  the  Alai  Moun- 
tain system. 

The  western  region  of  Bokhara  possesses  an 
extremely  dry  climate  which,  while  hot  in  summer, 
tends  to  emphasise  the  severe  cold  of  the  winter 
months.  Occasionally  at  that  time  the  Amu  Daria 
freezes,  when  the  ice  remains  about  the  river  for  two 
or  three  weeks.  The  break-up  of  winter  is  mani- 
fested by  heavy^  rains  which,  falling  in  February, 
continue  until  the  middle  of  March,  when,  after  a 
short  month  of  spring,  a  hot  sun  burns  up  the  vege- 
tation. At  this  period  the  nomadic  tribes  aban- 
don the  plains  for  the  mountains,  large  areas  of  the 
Khanate  now  presenting  the  appearance  of  a  sparsely 
populated  desert  in  which  the  sole  vegetation   is 

26 


THE    KHANATE    OF    BOKHARA 

found  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers  or  in  oases 
watered  by  the  canals.  With  the  advent  of  autumn, 
the  steppe  once  more  reflects  the  movements  of 
these  people. 

In  its  eastern  part  the  altitude  varies  between  2500 
and  8500  feet  above  sea-level.  The  climate,  warm 
and  mild  in  summer,  is  of  undue  severity  in  winter, 
the  period  of  extreme  cold  lasting  some  four  months. 
Snow,  commencing  to  fall  in  October,  remains  upon 
the  ground  until  April,  the  frosts  always  being  severe. 
At  such  a  season  the  winds,  blowing  from  the  north- 
east, possess  an  unusual  keenness  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  strong  south-south-westerly  winds  which, 
prevailing  in  summer,  are  the  precursor  to  burning 
sand-storms. 

The  total  population  of  the  Khanate  amounts 
approximately  to  2,500,000;  the  well-watered,  flour- 
ishing oases  bear  in  some  places  as  many  as  4000 
people  to  the  square  mile.  The  steppe  and  moun- 
tainous regions  are  sparsely  populated.  The  most 
important  inhabited  centres  of  the  Khanate  are  as 
follows : 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION 

TOWN  POPULATION         TOWN  POPULATION 

Bokhara     100,000     Hissar      15,000 

Karshi      60,000     Shir  Abad   20,000 

Shaar    10,000     Karki     10,000 

Guzar 25,000     Charjui    15,000 

Kara  Kul     5,000     Kcrmine      12,000 

Ziadin     8,000     Kelif 7,000 

According  to  ethnographic  distribution  the  pop- 
ulation falls  into  two  divisions.     To  the  first  belong 

27 


AFGHANISTAN 

those  of  Turki  extraction  and  to  the  second  the  Ira- 
nian group.  Amongst  those  of  Turki  descent,  the 
Uzbegs  take  the  most  prominent  place,  constituting 
not  only  a  racial  preponderance  but  the  ruling  power 
in  the  Khanate.  Among  the  remaining  constituents 
of  the  Turki  division  are  the  Turkomans  (chiefly 
Ersaris)  and  the  Kirghiz.  To  the  Iranian  category 
belong  the  Tajiks  —  the  original  inhabitants  of  the 
country,  even  now  constituting  the  principal  section 
of  the  population  throughout  its  eastern  and  south- 
ern portions;  the  Sarts,  a  conglomeration  of  Turki 
and  Iranian  nationalities,  comprise  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  urban  and  rural  population.  In 
smaller  numbers  are  the  various  colonies  of  Jews, 
Afghans,  Persians,  Arabs,  Armenians,  Hindoos,  and 
others.  With  the  exception  of  the  Jews  and  the 
Hindoos  the  entire  population  is  Mohammedan. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  population  is  represented 
by  sedentary,  semi-nomadic,  and  nomadic  classes. 
The  first,  constituting  about  65  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
population,  is  distributed  principally  in  the  plains, 
a  considerable  proportion  comprising  Tajiks,  Sarts, 
Jews,  Persians,  Afghans,  and  Hindoos.  The  semi- 
nomadic  population  forms  about  15  per  cent.,  con- 
sisting partly  of  Uzbegs,  Turkomans,  and  Tajiks 
dw^elling  in  the  hills.  The  nomads,  who  make  up 
20  per  cent,  of  the  population,  Hve  in  the  steppes  of 
the  western  portion  of  the  Khanate,  in  Darwaz  and 
along  the  slopes  of  the  Hissar  Mountains.  They 
comprise  Uzbegs,  Turkomans,  and  Kirghiz. 

The  soil,  in  general  adapted  to  agriculture,  yields 

28 


THE    KHANATE    OF    BOKHARA 

with  irrigation  excellent  harvests.  The  amount  of 
cultivated  land  in  the  Khanate  is  little  in  excess  of 
8000  square  miles;  but,  in  order  to  make  full  use 
of  the  waters  of  the  Amu  Daria,  Surkan,  KajQrnigan, 
and  Waksh  Rivers,  a  large  expenditure  would  be 
required,  the  present  system  of  irrigation  beinsf  very 
inadequate.  Apart  from  cotton,  which  is  exported 
in  the  raw  state  to  the  value  of  several  million  poods 
annually,  and  the  silk  industry,  which,  owing  to  dis- 
ease among  the  worms,  has  deteriorated,  the  chief 
agricultural  interest  lies  in  the  production  of  fruit, 
the  produce  of  the  orchards  forming  a  staple  food 
during  the  summer  months.  As  a  consequence, 
many  different  varieties  of  grapes,  peaches,  apricots, 
melons,  watermelons,  plums,  apples,  and  pears  are 
cultivated  in  the  several  gardens  and  orchards. 
Cattle-farming  is  conducted  extensively  in  the  val- 
leys of  the  Hissar  and  Alai  Ranges  and  in  Darwaz; 
in  Kara  Kul,  situated  in  the  vast  Urta  Chul  steppe 
between  the  towns  of  Bokhara  and  Karsi,  is  the  home 
of  the  famous  caracal  sheep.  Other  industries  are 
the  manufacture  of  leathern  goods:  shoes,  saddles, 
saddle-cloths;  metal  and  pottery  ware;  while  a  staple 
product,  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  felts,  car- 
pets, and  the  clothes  of  the  people,  is  cotton  wool. 

The  yearly  budget  of  the  Khanate  amounts  to 
8,000,000  roubles,  1,005,000  roubles  of  which  are 
spent  upon  the  army.  The  standing  army,  compris- 
ing Guards,  battalions  of  the  line,  cavalry  regiments, 
a  brigade  of  mounted  rifles,  and  a  small  corps  of 
artillerists,  possesses  a  strength  of  15,000  men  with 

29 


AFGHANISTAN 

twenty  guns.  In  addition  there  is  a  militia  liable 
for  duty  in  case  of  necessity  but,  equally  with  its 
more  imposing  sister  service,  of  little  practical  utility. 
The  city  of  Bokhara  is  surrounded  by  massive 
walls  which  were  built  in  the  ninth  century,  28  feet 
in  height,  14  feet  in  thickness  at  the  base,  with  131 
towers,  and  pierced  at  irregular  intervals  by  eleven 
gates.  These  ramparts  contain,  within  a  circuit  of  7J 
miles,  an  area  of  1760  acres.  The  population  num- 
bers some  hundred  thousand  and  the  variety  of  types 
included  in  this  estimate  is  immense.  The  Tajiks, 
who  predominate,  are  well  favoured  in  their  appear- 
ance; they  have  clear,  olive  complexions  with  black 
eyes  and  hair.  Polite,  hard-working,  and  intelli- 
gent, they  possess  considerable  aptitude  for  business. 
Against  these  excellent  traits,  however,  must  be 
noted  the  fact  that  they  are  inclined  to  cowardice 
and  dishonesty.  On  this  account  they  are  regarded 
with  contempt  by  the  Uzbegs,  a  race  whose  physi- 
cal characteristics  cause  them  to  resemble  the  rude 
warriors  of  the  Osmanlis  who  supplanted  the  Cross 
by  the  Crescent  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Indepen- 
dent in  their  bearing,  the  Uzbegs  possess  high  cour- 
age together  with  something  of  the  inborn  dignity 
of  the  Turk;  but  they  are  distinguished  from  that 
nation  by  a  greater  grossness  of  manner  and  less 
individuality.  Equally  with  the  Kirghiz  and  the 
Turkomans,  the  Uzbegs  are  divided  in  their  classes 
between  sedentary  people  and  nomads.  Then,  also, 
in  this  dsedalus  there  is  the  Jewish  community,  which 
is  traditionally   believed   to   have  migrated   hither 

30 


THE    KHANATE    OF    BOKHARA 

from  Baghdad.  The  Jews  in  Bokhara  are  forbid- 
den to  ride  in  the  streets;  while  they  must  wear 
a  distinctive  costume,  the  main  features  of  which 
include  a  small  black  cap,  a  dressing-gown  of  camel's 
hair,  and  a  rope  girdle.  They  are  relegated  to  a 
filthy  ghetto;  and,  although  they  may  not  be  killed 
with  impunity  by  a  good  believer,  they  are  subjected 
to  such  grinding  persecution  that  their  numbers 
have  been  reduced  in  the  course  of  half  a  century 
to  something  less  than  75  per  cent,  of  the  10,000  who 
originally  composed  the  colony.  The  Jew  in  Bok- 
hara shares  with  the  Hindoo  settler  there  the  profits 
of  money-lending  and  the  two  classes  are  keen  hands 
at  a  bargain.  In  addition  to  the  Hindoos  there  are 
a  few  Mohammedan  merchants  from  Peshawar  who 
are  concerned  in  the  tea  trade.  Other  races  among 
the  moving  mass  comprise  Afghans,  Persians,  and 
Arabs,  the  variety  of  features  shown  by  a  Bokharan 
crowd  suggesting  so  many  different  quarters  as  their 
place  of  origin  that  one  would  need  to  recite  the  map 
of  High  Asia  to  describe  them. 

The  town  of  Bokhara  is  supplied  with  water  from 
the  Shari  Rud  Canal,  which,  in  turn,  is  fed  by 
the  Zerafshan  River.  A  considerable  amount  is 
stored  locally  in  special  reservoirs,  of  which  there 
are  85.  As  their  contents  are  seldom  changed  the 
supply  soon  assumes  a  thick,  greenish  consistency, 
the  use  of  which  is  extremely  detrimental  to  the 
health  of  the  inhabitants.  The  deficiency  of  fresh 
water  for  drinking  purposes,  the  oppressiveness  of 
the  summer  heat,  and  the  propinquity  of  numerous 

31 


AFGHANISTAN 

cemeteries,  together  with  the  dust  and  dirt  of  the 
crowded  streets,  make  hfe  in  Bokhara  almost  intol- 
erable. The  city,  too,  is  a  hot-bed  of  disease,  malaria 
being  specially  prominent  at  certain  seasons.  The 
filaria  medinesisy  a  worm  of  burrowing  propensity, 
is  endemic. 

In  Bokhara,  as  in  most  Eastern  cities,  the  feminine 
element  is  entirely  excluded  from  the  street.  The 
emancipation  of  women  has  not  begun  in  the  Middle 
East;  should  any  have  to  venture  forth  they  are 
muffled  up  so  carefully  that  not  even  a  suggestion 
of  their  personal  appearance  can  be  gathered.  Yet 
there  is  a  certain  charm  and  mystery  in  the  flitting 
of  the  veiled  Beauty  and  one  would  fain  linger  to 
speculate  further,  if  such  dallying  with  fortune  were 
not  eminently  injudicious.  If  there  is  no  revelation 
of  the  female  form  divine  in  the  bazaar  there  is,  at 
least,  a  wonderful  wealth  of  gorgeous  colouring.  In 
time  of  festival  the  scene,  welling  up  to  break  away 
in  endless  ripples,  suggests  the  myriad  beauties  of  a 
rainbow  splintered  into  a  million  fragments. 

There  is  relief,  too,  from  the  burning  sunshine  in 
the  cool,  lofty  passages:  shady,  thronged,  and  tortu- 
ous thej^  extend  in  endless  succession  for  mile  after 
mile.  The  roof  of  the  bazaar  is  a  rude  contrivance 
of  undressed  beams  upon  which  there  is  a  covering 
of  beaten  clay.  Behind  each  stall  is  an  alcove  in 
the  wall  serving  as  home  and  ofiice  to  the  keen- 
visaged  merchant  who  presides.  In  this  little  recess, 
piled  upon  innumerable  shelves,  rammed  into  little 
niches  or  strewn  upon  the  floor,  are  the  different 

32 


A     CITY     SCENE    IX    AFGHANISTAN 


THE    KHANATE    OF    BOKHARA 

articles  which  his  trade  requires.  Carpets  and  rugs 
of  harmonious  hues,  a  wealth  of  parti-coloured  shawls, 
innumerable  lengths  of  dress  pieces,  cutlery,  trinkets, 
snuff-boxes,  gorgeous  velvets  and  brilliant  silks,  the 
shimmer  of  satin  and  the  coarse  tracing  of  gold-wire 
embroidery,  are  here  all  displayed  in  prodigal  con- 
fusion. As  to  the  sources  of  supply,  a  good  deal  of 
the  merchandise  is  the  produce  of  Russian  markets. 
For  the  rest,  a  certain  proportion  comes  from  Ger- 
many and  a  small  amount  is  imported  from  France. 
England,  it  may  be  noted,  is  not  represented  at  all. 

The  money-changers  have  a  quarter  to  themselves, 
as  have  also  the  metal-workers  and  the  vendors  of 
silks  and  velvets.  At  every  corner  and  odd  twist 
of  the  passages  there  are  the  sweet-sellers,  the  tea 
merchants,  and  the  booths  for  food.  China  is  the 
principal  source  of  the  tea  supply,  but  of  late  a  cer- 
tain amount  has  found  its  way  into  Bokhara  from 
the  gardens  of  India  and  Ceylon.  It  is  before  the 
steaming  samovars  that  the  crowd  of  prospective 
purchasers  is  apt  to  be  thickest.  Beyond  the  bazaar 
boundaries  are  the  wonderful  relics  of  a  bygone 
grandeur  —  imposing  buildings  and  mosques,  touched 
with  the  glory  of  the  sunlight  and  capacious  enough 
to  contain  within  their  courtyards  10,000  people  at 
one  time. 

Although  the  chief  interest  of  Bokhara  centres 
in  the  portion  just  described,  its  public  buildings 
well  repay  leisurely  examination.  The  Registan,  the 
market-place  of  the  north-west  quarter,  acts  as  a 
central  zone.     On  one  side  standing  upon  a  vast 

33 


AFGHANISTAN 

artificial  mound  is  the  citadel  or  Ark,  its  mighty 
walls  forming  a  square  of  450  yards,  its  parapet 
crenellated,  and  its  corners  set  with  towers.  The 
building  dates  from  the  era  of  the  Samanides.  In 
addition  to  the  Amir's  palace  the  walls  of  the  Ark 
enclose  the  houses  of  the  chief  ministers,  the  treasury, 
the  state  prison,  and  various  offices.  The  entrance 
to  the  citadel,  which  is  defended  by  two  imposing 
towers,  is  closed  by  massive  gates  above  which  there 
is  a  clock.  None  save  the  highest  officials  are  per- 
mitted to  enter  the  Ark;  visitors,  irrespective  of 
rank,  are  compelled  to  dismount  at  its  doors  and  to 
proceed  on  foot  to  the  Amir's  quarters.  Opposite 
the  Ark  stands  the  largest  mosque  in  Bokhara,  the 
Medjidi  Kalan  or  Kok  Gumbaz  —  the  Mosque  of 
the  Green  Cupola  —  which  the  Amir  attends  every 
Friday  when  he  is  in  residence. 

A  smaller  market-place,  where  transactions  in  cot- 
ton are  carried  out,  is  surrounded  by  several  impos- 
ing edifices  that  rise  with  infinite  grace  to  the  sky, 
besides  countless  minarets  of  prayer  acting  as  land- 
marks to  the  faithful.  Here  is  the  Great  Mosque, 
the  Masjid-i-Jama,  while  facing  it  is  the  Medresse 
Mir-i-Arab.  This  latter  building  ranks  first  among 
the  many  stately  colleges  of  Bokhara.  Near  at  hand 
is  the  Minar  Kalan,  36  feet  at  the  base  and  taper- 
ing to  a  height  of  over  200  feet.  From  a  small  plat- 
form just  below  the  lofty  pinnacle,  miscreants  were 
hurled  to  destruction  in  bygone  days.  With  the 
exception  of  these  buildings  the  city  contains  little 
of  antiquity. 

34 


THE    KHANATE    OF    BOKHARA 

For  its  size  the  native  quarter  is  a  centre  of  the 
greatest  importance;  and  its  streets,  although  mean 
and  sinuous,  are  filled  by  a  crowd  most  typical  of 
Asia.  Ten  thousand  students  receive  instruction  in 
its  schools. 

The  houses,  which  are  set  in  small  compounds 
approached  by  narrow  alleys,  are  composed  of  clay 
with  low  roofs  and  without  windows.  A  hole  in 
the  roof  suffices  for  a  chimney,  and  the  open  door 
affords  light. 


35 


CHAPTER    III 

TEE   PROVINCE    OF   SAMARKAND 

SA]\L\RKAXD,  the  administrative  centre  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name  and  founded 
in  1871,  is  a  close  reproduction  of  a  large 
Indian  cantonment.  The  streets  are  wide,  well 
paved,  fringed  with  tall  poplars,  and  set  with  shops 
which  are  kept  by  Europeans.  For  the  Russians,  as 
the  centre  of  the  province  and  the  location  of  army- 
headquarters,  it  has  special  importance.  Although 
without  any  architectural  pretensions  —  the  build- 
ings are  all  one-storey  structures  on  account  of 
frequent  visitations  from  earthquakes  —  its  com- 
paratively lofty  position  makes  it  an  agreeable  sta- 
tion and  one  of  the  most  attractive  gathering-places 
for  Europeans  in  Asiatic  Russia.  The  city  is  sit- 
uated upon  the  south-western  slopes  of  the  Chupan 
Ata  Range,  7  versts  from  the  Zerafshan  River. 
The  close  proximity  of  the  hills  naturally  influences 
its  rainfall,  which  is  greatest  in  March  and  April. 
The  period  from  June  to  September  is  dry;  and  by 
February  or  March  the  trees  are  in  bloom.  By  a 
happy  choice  in  construction  it  has  been  planned 
upon  exceptionally  generous  lines  which,  although 
imparting  to  the  outskirts  a  desolate  aspect,  have 

36 


PROVINCE    OF    SAMARKAND 

been  the  cause  of  securing  to  the  community'  a  num- 
ber of  spacious  squares,  around  which  are  placed  the 
barracks  and  certain  parks.  The  principal  square, 
named  after  General  Ivanoff,  a  former  Governor 
of  the  province,  is  Ivanovski  Square.  Another  inter- 
esting memento  of  the  Russian  conquest  of  Tur- 
kestan is  situated  between  the  mihtary  quarter  and 
the  green  avenues  of  the  Russian  town,  in  a  spot 
where  the  heroes  who  fell  in  the  defence  of  the  citadel 
in  1868  were  buried.  At  the  same  place,  too,  a 
memorial  has  been  erected  to  Colonel  Sokovnin  and 
Staff-Captain  Konevski,  who  were  killed  in  1869. 

The  population  of  Samarkand  at  the  census  of 
1897  was  54,900. 

According  to  the  statistics  of  1901,  which  are  the 
most  recently  available,  these  figures  had  increased 
by  a  few  thousands;  they  were  then  58,194. 

Russians 10,621  Sarts 40.184 

Poles 315  Kirghiz    36 

Germans 378  Afghans 186 

Armenians 335  Persians iS7 

Jews   4,949  Hindoos 10 

The  native  quarter,  which  is  separated  from  the 
Russian  town  by  the  Abramovski  Boulevard  —  so 
named  in  honour  of  General  Abramoff,  another 
military  governor  of  the  province  —  covers  an  area 
of  4629  dessiatines.  It  was  built  by  Timur  the 
Lame.  The  streets  with  few  exceptions  are  narrow, 
winding,  and  unpaved;  the  houses  are  of  baked  mud, 
mean  and  cramped,  with  flat  earthen  roofs  and  no 
windows.     The  value   of    Government   property   in 

37 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  Russian  and  native  areas  of  the  city  is  estimated 
at  4,077,081  roubles.  The  city  revenue  approxi- 
mates 147,010  roubles.  The  native  quarter  is  the 
great  commercial  centre  of  the  province  and  the 
trade  returns  for  the  city  and  its  surrounding  dis- 
trict amount  to  17,858,900  roubles  out  of  24,951,320 
roubles  for  the  entire  province.  Of  the  squares 
the  most  celebrated  is  the  Registan,  with  a  length 
of  35  sagenes  and  width  of  30  sagenes.  It  is 
bounded  by  three  large  mosques :  the  Tillah  Kori  — 
the  Gold  Covered;  Ulug  Beg;  and  Shir  Dar  —  the 
Lion  Bearing. 

The  Registan  is  the  heart  of  ancient  Samarkand. 
Prior  to  the  advent  of  the  Russians,  pardon  and 
punishment  were  dealt  from  it  to  the  people  by  their 
rulers,  executions  performed  and  wars  declared,  as 
the  authorities  pleased.  Even  up  to  the  present 
day  the  Registan  has  preserved  in  some  degree  its 
importance  as  a  popular  tribune.  From  it  self- 
constituted  orators,  holy  men  and  politicians,  ex- 
pound their  doctrines  before  a  people  gathered 
together  from  the  most  distant  corners  of  the  con- 
tinent of  Asia.  The  Registan  is  only  one  feature  of 
this  delightful  city;  for  here,  too,  are  the  stately 
ruins  of  the  Bibi  Khanum,  tomb  of  the  wife  of  Timur, 
and  the  Gur  Amir  where  Timur's  remains  lie  amid 
a  scene  eloquent  in  its  simple  grandeur.  Although, 
unfortunately,  this  building  has  been  spoilt  by 
attempts  at  restoration,  its  encrusted  tiles  are  as 
beautiful  as  when  they  were  made,  400  years  ago. 
Here,  too,  is  the  resting-place  of  the  Shah  Zindeh; 

38 


PROVINCE    OF    SAMARKAND 

and  in  its  Urda  or  ancient  citadel,  now  a  weak, 
bastioned  fort,  is  the  Kok  Task  —  the  coronation- 
stone  of  the  descendants  of  Timur.  The  charm  of 
the  Gur  Amir  is  supreme.  Within  its  dome,  before 
the  horse-hair  standard,  the  sheer  force  of  associa- 
tion and  the  infinite  suggestion  of  the  spot  make  one 
feel  the  great  presence  of  this  renowned  soldier. 
Beneath  the  cupola  there  is  a  nephrite  cenotaph; 
perhaps,  as  Colonel  C.  E.  de  la  Poer  Beresford  has 
said,  the  largest  block  of  green  jade  in  the  world. 
Close  to  it  other  tombs,  lighter  in  colour,  are  erected 
to  the  memory  of  Ulug  Beg  and  Mir  Sayid,  Timur's 
grandson  and  tutor.  Around  these  is  a  carved  gyp- 
sum balustrade  and  in  the  crypt  below,  under  a 
simple  brick  tomb,  lies  the  vanquisher  of  Toktamish 
Khan,  of  Sultan  Bayazid,  of  Persia,  the  Caucasus, 
and  India  —  Timur  himself. 

In  its  economic  aspect  Samarkand  occupies  a  very 
important  position.  Although  scarcely  serving  as  a 
mart  to  the  produce  of  British  India  and  Afghanistan, 
it  is  nevertheless  a  great  emporium  of  trade.  The 
roads,  leading  to  the  town  or  from  it,  as  the  case 
may  be,  are  an  index  of  its  wide-reaching  commer- 
cial influence.  They  run  from  Samarkand  to  Karki 
on  the  Amu  Daria;  and  to  Tashkent  via  Jizak;  while 
Khojand,  Khokand,  Namangan,  Andijan,  Margelan, 
and  Osh  are  all  in  direct  communication  with  it. 
Caravans  from  the  east  and  north,  from  Persia  and 
from  China,  carts  perched  on  two  gigantic  wheels 
or  transport  bullocks  laden  with  skins,  even  sheep 
carrying  small  packages  —  all  are  impressed  into  ser- 

39 


AFGHANISTAN 

vice  and  seem  to  be  revolving  in  a  constant  stream 
round  Samarkand.  There  is  a  steady  traffic  and  the 
numerous  bazaars  are  the  centre  of  a  brisk  trade  in 
skins  and  pelts.  Unlike  the  bazaars  of  Bokhara, 
along  the  sides  of  which  the  merchants  have  their 
stalls,  the  passageways  are  open  to  the  heavens. 
After  the  wonderful  picture  of  Asiatic  life  presented 
by  Bokhara,  there  are  those  who  complain  of  a  feel- 
ing of  disappointment  at  the  more  subdued  cur- 
rent which  flows  through  Samarkand.  Nevertheless 
the  town  has  a  charming  setting.  The  snow-peaks 
of  the  Hissar  chain  and  the  curtain  of  enchanting 
fields  and  spreading  vineyards,  w^hich  hides  the  hid- 
eous aspect  of  the  Kara  Kum,  add  to  the  pleasure 
which  is  derived  from  the  delicate  mingling  of  the 
colours  of  the  street  life.  There  is,  indeed,  a  very 
special  type  found  in  the  bazaars  of  Bokhara  and 
Samarkand.  Dressed  in  the  choicest  of  silks,  so 
soft  that  it  suggests  the  rustle  of  the  wind  through 
the  peach-trees  and  dyed  in  tones  of  yellow,  green, 
and  brown,  in  shades  of  magenta  and  purple,  in  a 
note  of  blue  reflecting  the  sky  or  touched  with  the 
blush  of  a  red  rose,  are  men  of  fine  stature.  They 
move  with  their  long-skirted  gowns  clasped  at  the 
waist  and  their  silken  trousers  tucked  into  brown, 
untanned  boots,  the  seams  of  which  are  delicately 
embroidered.  Every  individual  reserves  to  himself 
a  most  exclusive  manner,  representing  the  embodi- 
ment of  dignity.  There  is  such  an  air  of  content- 
ment about  the  gaily-clad  crowd  as  it  passes  from 
stall  to  stall;  such  perfect  self-possession,  suggested 

40 


PROVINCE    OF    SAMARKAND 

humility,  and  independence,  that  the  difference  in  size 
between  Bokhara  and  Samarkand  goes  unnoticed; 
the  atmosphere  being  no  less  pleasing,  the  picture 
no  less  acceptable,  in  the  smaller  city  than  in  the 
capital. 

As  the  administrative  focus  of  the  Syr  Daria  Prov- 
ince, Tashkent  is  the  principal  city  of  Russian  Tur- 
kestan and  the  seat  of  the  Governor-General.  The 
Russian  quarter  at  once  recalls  memories  of  other 
spheres  of  Central  Asia.  The  streets  are  wide  and 
long.  Dusty  but  much  frequented,  they  are  bor- 
dered by  high,  white  poplars  set  in  double  rows, 
while  upon  each  side  there  run  the  gurgling  waters 
of  the  irrigation  canals.  The  city  is  laid  out  in  a 
sector  of  a  circle,  three  great  boulevards  radiating 
from  the  cathedral,  a  handsome,  octagonal  build- 
ing in  freestone.  Surmounted  by  the  dome  and 
golden  cross,  which  mark  in  Russia  all  Orthodox 
places  of  worship,  it  occupies  the  centre  of  Kon- 
stantinovski  Square.  It  contains  the  remains  of 
General  von  Kauffman,  Governor-General  of  Russian 
Turkestan  between  1867  and  1882  and,  incidentally, 
conqueror  of  Khiva  in  1873  and  of  Samarkand  in 
1868.     He  died  May  4,  1882. 


41 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE   DISTRICT    OF    TASHKENT 

TASHKENT,  situated  upon  the  slopes  of  the 
Tian  Shan  172  sagenes  above  sea-level,  lies 
in  the  midst  of  an  extensive  oasis  whose  fer- 
tile acres  are  watered  by  the  river  Chirchik  and  its 
tributaries.  January  is  the  coldest  month,  while 
July  is  the  hottest.  The  prevailing  breezes  are  north 
and  north-east;  but  the  characteristic  peculiarity  of 
the  climate  is  the  absence  of  wind,  which  makes 
the  high  temperature  in  the  summer  particularly 
oppressive.  Spring  weather  begins  in  March;  the 
hot  season,  commencing  in  May,  continues  until  the 
middle  of  August.  Speaking  generally  the  place 
possesses  the  attributes  of  the  climate  in  the  plains 
of  Central  Asia,  while  distinguished  by  its  greater 
yearly  rainfall  —  384  millimetres  —  in  consequence 
of  the  proximity  of  the  mountains.  The  drinking- 
water  question,  an  ever-attendant  difficulty  in  Cen- 
tral Asia,  is  no  less  acute  in  Tashkent,  constituting 
a  serious  drawback  to  conditions  of  life  there.  An 
ample  supply  of  water  is  available  for  irrigation,  the 
Chirchik  River,  as  well  as  numerous  wells  and  springs, 
being  diverted  for  this  purpose. 

The  Russian  quarter,  founded  in  1865  after  the 

42 


THE    DISTRICT   OF   TASHKENT 

capture  of  the  native  town  from  the  Khan  of  Kho- 
kand  upon  June  15  by  the  Russian  forces  under 
General  Chernaieff,  is  separated  from  the  native 
by  the  Angar  Canal.  It  is  divided  into  official  and 
residential  areas,  and  contains  many  large  streets. 
The  Sobornaya,  in  which  are  situated  the  best  shops, 
is  perhaps  more  animated  than  any  other  thor- 
oughfare in  the  town,  while  the  Romanovski  Street, 
which  crosses  the  official  quarter,  is  devoted  princi- 
pally to  the  Government  offices.  Three  wide  streets 
—  the  Gospitalnaya,  Dukhovskaya,  and  the  Kai- 
luski  Prospekt  —  along  which  it  is  proposed  to  erect 
business  premises,  also  run  from  this  quarter  to  the 
station.  The  residential  part  is  of  much  later  con- 
struction; its  population  is  more  scattered,  the  houses 
are  surrounded  with  dense  gardens  and  the  streets 
are  wider.  The  houses  in  each  section  are,  for  the 
most  part,  single  storeyed.  The  chief  public  works 
are  the  Alexandrovski  Park,  Konstantinovski  Square, 
Gorodskoi  Garden,  and  the  gardens  surrounding 
the  residence  of  the  Governor-General.  The  Tur- 
kestan Public  Library,  founded  by  General  von 
KaufFman  with  the  object  of  furthering  the  educa- 
tion of  the  country,  now  contains  more  than  40,000 
volumes. 

The  permanent  garrison  is  never  less  than  10,000 
men.  Barracks  and  store-house  accommodation  for 
military  supplies  abound  in  the  place.  Between  the 
spacious  station  and  the  Russian  city,  a  distance 
of  one  verst,  there  are  very  commodious  infantry 
quarters.     A  long  row  of  buildings,  somewhat  more 

43 


AFGHANISTAN 

remote  and  erected  upon  slightly  rising  ground,  con- 
tains the  lines  of  the  Cossack  establishment.  The 
climate  of  Tashkent  is  too  unhealthy  to  be  endured 
in  the  hot  weather.  In  summer  the  garrison  moves 
to  Chigman,  a  defile  671  sagenes  above  sea-level, 
situated  80  or  90  versts  beyond  the  town  on  the 
river  Chirchik,  where  there  is  a  sanatorium  for 
the  troops.  The  families  of  the  officers  usually 
pass  the  season  at  the  village  of  Troitzki,  25  versts 
from  Tashkent.  Five  versts  from  the  city  is 
Nikolski,  the  first  Russian  settlement  founded  in 
the  Syr  Daria  Province.  Lying  betw^een  it  and  the 
Russian  town  is  the  native  quarter.  Recalling 
Andijan,  Margelan,  Khokand,  and  Osh,  it  lacks  the 
animation  of  the  streets  of  Bokhara  and  is  destitute 
of  the  architectural  beauties  of  Samarkand.  Sur- 
rounded on  three  sides  by  gardens,  the  fourth  side 
touches  the  Russian  town  with  which  it  is  connected, 
as  also  with  the  station,  by  means  of  a  horse  tram- 
w^ay.  It  is  divided  into  four  parts  called  respectively 
Kukchinski,  Sibzyarski,  Shaikhantaurski,  and  Bish 
Agatchski.  Each  is  separated  into  districts,  these 
sub-divisions  totalling  206  in  all. 

The  two  quarters  of  Tashkent  occupy  to-day  an 
area  of  20  square  versts.  Forty  years  ago  the  site 
of  the  Russian  settlement  covered  no  more  ground 
that  that  required  by  the  village  which  contained 
the  garrison.  This  original  section  has  now  disap- 
peared, becoming  merged  as  time  passed  and  the 
colony  expanded  with  the  Fortress  Esplanade,  while 
the   population  has   similarly  increased.     In   May, 

44 


THE   DISTRICT   OF   TASHKENT 

1871,  the  combined  figures  of  the  native  and  Russian 
colony  gave  only  2701  inhabitants.  In  1901  the 
census  returns  showed  the  population  to  be: 


RUSSIANS 

NATIVES 

Men    . . . 

. .  16,416 

Men 

.  70,903 

Women  . 

. .  16,9S26 

Women    . 

.  .  59,019 

Total 33.342  Total 129,922 


45 


CHAPTER    V 

TEE   DISTRICT    OF  MERV 

ALTHOUGH  the  importance  of  Merv,  as  a 
military  district,  has  increased  since  the 
Orenburg-Tashkent  Railway  was  opened, 
the  numbers  of  the  resident  population  continue  to 
decline.  This  proceeds  from  the  unhealthy  condi- 
tions that  obtain  locally.  Malaria,  the  most  preva- 
lent complaint,  runs  a  very  level  course  throughout 
the  year.  Between  July  and  November  it  becomes 
exceptionally  virulent;  and  a  recent  Medical  Com- 
mission returned  the  causes  of  the  sickness  in  Merv 
as  due  solely  to  the  presence  of  a  specific  organism 
which,  passing  from  the  soil  into  the  water,  was 
absorbed  by  the  inhabitants.  So  rife  is  the  disease 
that  it  is  estimated  that  not  one  person  escapes  its 
attacks  in  the  course  of  the  year.  The  highest  sick- 
rate  occurs  between  the  months  of  July  and  Novem- 
ber, when  it  is  responsible  for  80  per  cent,  of  the 
"Daily  State"  in  the  garrison  and  district  hospitals. 
Merv  malaria  generally  attacks  the  liver  and  kid- 
neys, rapidly  affecting  the  spleen.  Every  effort  has 
been  made  to  cope  with  its  ravages.  Among  the 
attempts  was  a  scheme  for  the  introduction  of  a 
new  system  of  irrigation  and  the  purification  of  the 

46 


THE    DISTRICT    OF    MERV 

water  system,  to  which  the  Minister  of  War  assigned 
63,000  roubles.  Hitherto  the  drinking-water,  derived 
from  the  Murghab,  has  been  altogether  unfit  for 
consumption.  Apart  from  possible  contamination 
in  the  sources  of  the  water-supply,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  much  of  the  malaria  in  Merv  arises  from 
constant  displacement  of  soil  in  the  oasis;  similar 
conditions  prevail,  usually  for  three  or  four  years, 
in  all  tropical  and  semi-tropical  countries  when- 
ever agricultural  or  other  development  requires  the 
breaking  of  ground. 

Certain  features  encountered  in  Merv  —  such  as 
groups  of  chaffering  natives,  clusters  of  small,  open 
shops,  dusty  trees,  open  drains,  and  sweltering  heat 
—  are  strangely  reminiscent  of  India,  but  the  absence 
of  punkahs  and  the  high  price  of  ice  prove  that  the 
Russians  in  Central  Asia  are  indifferent  to  comfort. 
Even  the  hotels  make  no  attempt  to  relieve  the  effect 
of  the  temperature;  while,  in  general,  the  houses 
are  built  without  verandahs  and  the  windows  are 
unfitted  with  jalousies.  Within  the  houses,  too,  con- 
ditions are  most  trying,  the  policy  of  every  one 
being  to  admit  the  flies  and  exclude  the  air.  Trade 
manages  to  thrive;  and  a  weekly  market  is  held  on 
Mondays  upon  a  plain  to  the  east  of  the  town. 
Thither  all  roads  converge;  thronged  with  two- 
wheeled  Persian  carts,  ill-fed  baggage  horses  bur- 
dened with  goods,  and  gurgling  camels.  Standing 
solitary  and  forlorn  is  the  patient  ass  whose  lament 
is  so  eloquently  described  by  Mr.  Shoemaker,  where 
that  author  says: 

47 


AFGHANISTAN 

Oh,  my  brother  from  that  far  western  land  where  even  a 
little  ass  like  me  has  some  chance  to  sleep  in  quiet,  blame  me 
not,  I  beseech  you,  that  I  weep.  You  have  seen  how  digni- 
fied and  self-contained  my  brethren  are  in  Egypt;  but  there 
w^e  never  carry  more  than  two  of  the  heathen  at  the  most, 
whereas  here,  you  see,  it  is  always  three  and  sometimes 
four;  therefore  I  weep,  oh  my  brother,  and  will  not  be  com- 
forted. 

Fair  days  in  the  town  bazaars  are  held  upon  Sun- 
days and  Thursdays,  when  the  Hebrew,  Persian,  and 
Armenian  merchants  are  surrounded  by  crowds  of 
Tekkes  from  neighbouring  villages.  Disposed  for 
sale  are  the  innumerable  commodities  of  the  Middle 
East  —  rice  from  Meshed;  fruits  from  Samarkand; 
silk,  sweetmeats,  and  velvet  from  Bokhara;  cheap 
cutlery,  trinkets,  leather  goods,  and  samovars  from 
Russia;  beautiful  embroidery  and  shawls  from  the 
stores  of  the  wealthier  merchants;  carpets  from 
Herat;  sheepskins  from  the  country-side;  plough- 
shares and  knives  from  local  forges;  and  relics  of 
Old  Merv.  Prices  are  high;  but  the  Turkomans 
make  their  purchases  very  willingly,  unconscious  of 
the  contrast  between  their  present  peaceful  demean- 
our and  the  attitude  which  distinguished  them 
when  they  were  robbers  of  the  country-side. 

Apart  from  the  garrison  the  population  numbers 
less  than  5000. 

The  revenues  derived  from  the  native  town  amount 
to  42,000  roubles  a  year  and  the  volume  of  business 
annually  turned  over  is  a  little  short  of  100,000 
roubles.  The  prosperity  of  the  place  is  attested 
by   the  individual  wealth  of  merchants   attending 

48 


THE    DISTRICT    OF    MERV 

the  bazaars.  Many  of  these  men  hve  in  spacious 
houses,  the  majority  of  the  natives  frequenting  the 
bazaar  being  well-to-do  and  apparently  contented. 
Trade  is  brisk  and,  as  the  Russians  have  imposed 
but  a  few  taxes  and  the  Turkomans  are  exempt  from 
military  service,  no  particular  difficulty  attends  the 
earning  of  the  daily  wage. 

It  is  said  occasionally  that  the  disasters  which 
attended  Russia  in  Manchuria  have  stimulated  the 
ambitions  and  desires  of  the  Mohammedan  popula- 
tion of  Asiatic  Russia  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Mus- 
covite rule.  Hence  it  is  possible  that  the  reading  of 
the  existing  situation  in  Central  Asia,  which  is  here 
presented,  may  not  be  accepted.  In  point  of  fact, 
the  Mohammedan  attitude  towards  Russian  rule  in 
Mid-Asia  has  no  relation  whatever  to  the  outcome 
of  the  late  war  in  Manchuria;  nor  was  it  influenced 
in  any  way  by  the  developments  of  that  struggle. 
Contrary  belief  is  based  upon  the  impression  that 
the  animus  entertained  against  the  Russians  by  the 
races  of  British  India,  where  it  is  now  assumed  by 
the  ignorant  and  very  foolish  that  Russian  arms 
would  be  at  once  defeated  in  any  Indo-Russian 
conflict,  exists  equally  among  the  Mohammedan 
population  of  Asiatic  Russia.  Native  opinion  in 
Central  Asia  knew  almost  nothing  of  the  course, 
character,  and  result  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War. 
Even  if  suspicions  of  the  actual  results  were  enter- 
tained, the  constant  display  of  troops,  which  was 
made  in  all  Central  Asiatic  centres  of  importance 
during  the  progress  of  the  campaign,  would  have  dis- 

49 


A  F  G  n  x\  N  I  S  T  A  N 

polled  the  belief  that  the  Russian  military  resources 
were  straitened.  Apart  from  this  fact,  the  public  in 
Central  Asia  were  supplied  only  with  those  versions 
of  the  truth  which  were  most  acceptable  —  and  use- 
ful —  to  the  Russian  amour  propre.  It  will  be  seen, 
therefore,  that  wherever  Mohammedan  feeling  may 
be  opposed  in  the  Tsar's  Asiatic  dominions  to  Rus- 
sian domination,  such  sentiment  is  spontaneous  and 
as  deeply  rooted  or  easily  appeased  as  the  circum- 
stances which  may  have  excited  it  dictate.  It  is 
well  to  understand  this  phase  of  the  situation  in 
Central  Asia  since,  in  itself,  it  is  very  significant. 

Merv,  perhaps,  is  a  case  in  point.  On  the  surface 
the  aspect  of  affairs  there  is  placid  enough;  but  the 
Russians  in  Central  Asia  have  read  so  many  effective 
lessons  to  their  subject  races  that  at  best  opinion 
upon  the  possible  chances  of  an  outbreak  is  a  blind 
hazard.  Doubtless  religious  and  racial  prejudices 
are  smouldering;  yet,  if  there  is  any  feeling  of  dis- 
content, it  must  arise  from  an  animosity  born  of 
pure  fanaticism.  Certainly  the  Russian  rule  in 
Mid-Asia  is  tolerant  —  now  that  the  lesson  has  been 
taught  —  and  there  is  neither  religious  nor  educa- 
tional interference.  Moreover  trade,  fostered  by 
very  careful  protection,  prospers;  and  at  least  one 
secret  of  success  in  any  Central  Asian  system  of  gov- 
ernment is  to  let  well  alone  and  appeal  to  the  vulgar 
through  their  pocket.  This  principle  the  Russians 
support  with  admirable  patience,  taking  precautions 
at  the  same  time  that  their  benevolent  administra- 
tion shall  not  be  endangered  by  too  much  license 

50 


THE    DISTRICT    OF    MERV 

in  the  matter  of  importing  or  possessing  arms.  A 
native  rising  would  be  difficult  upon  this  account 
alone;  while  it  should  be  remembered,  too,  that 
many  years  of  leisured  ease  have  brought  about  con- 
siderable deterioration  in  the  instinctive  passion  for 
rape,  bloodshed,  and  plunder,  which  distinguished, 
only  a  few  years  ago,  the  inhabitants  of  these  Cen- 
tral Asian  IGianates. 

Again,  always  presupposing  the  steady  loyalty  of 
the  great  bulk  of  the  European  troops,  Russia  has 
not  enrolled  any  large  number  of  native  recruits  in 
regions  beyond  the  Caspian  Sea;  although  her  policy 
in  the  Caucasus  has  not  been  quite  so  exclusive. 
The  success  of  any  native  insurrectionary  movement 
in  Trans-Caspia  would  depend,  therefore,  upon  the 
precise  amount  of  support  that  it  received  from  any 
disaffected  sections  of  the  Caucasian  establishment 
that  might  be  incorporated  with  the  Russo-European 
army  on  service  in  the  Khanates.  No  doubt  the 
wide  area  covered  by  the  rebellion  in  the  Caucasus 
will  encourage  the  Caucasian  element  in  the  Trans- 
Caspian  army  to  be  troublesome;  and,  since  the 
Caucasian  races  in  a  measure  are  akin  with  the  Cen- 
tral Asian  peoples,  mutual  sympathy  may  give  rise 
to  positive  revolt  in  Central  Asia.  Between  the 
European  soldiers  and  the  native  races,  however, 
there  is  little  in  common;  and  unless  revolutionary 
agents  from  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  or  the  larger 
centres  of  disturbance  contaminate  the  adherence 
of  the  men,  there  is  really  nothing  to  cause  them  to 
listen  to  any  seditious  overtures  which  might  emanate 

51 


AFGHANISTAN 

from  native  sources.  It  is  very  easy  in  Central  Asia 
to  remove  the  rails  of  the  permanent  way  or  to  inter- 
rupt telegraphic  communication,  since  the  railway 
and  the  wires  run  for  hundreds  of  miles  unguarded 
and  at  the  mercy  of  any  wandering,  discontented 
miscreant.  Such  instances  of  disaffection  would  be 
sporadic.  Difficulties  of  combination  —  if  the  great 
distances  separating  Khiva,  Merv,  Bokhara,  and 
Tashkent  were  ignored,  which  they  cannot  be  if 
the  position  of  affairs  is  to  be  appraised  properly 
—  would  alone  prevent  any  simultaneous  co-opera- 
tion; while  whatever  unanimity  might  be  disclosed 
by  actively  hostile  parties  of  native  or  European 
revolutionaries,  the  forces  at  the  disposal  of  the 
military  authorities  must  enable  them  to  suppress 
the  movement  rapidly  and  at  once. 

Of  course  the  agitation  in  European  Russia  can- 
not leave  Russians  in  Central  Asia  unaffected;  con- 
tinuation of  the  widespread  irruptions  of  disorder 
in  European  Russia  obviously  imparts  a  new  and 
most  serious  complexion  to  affairs  in  Asiatic  Russia. 
Moreover  signs  of  unrest,  in  consequence  of  interfer- 
ence by  revolutionary  agents  from  St.  Petersburg, 
have  already  been  displayed.  At  Askhabad  the  offi- 
cers were  locked  in  their  quarters;  at  Kushkinski 
Post  200  soldiers  joined  in  a  strike  of  railway  and 
telegraph  officials.  Further,  at  the  instigation  of 
Sokoloff,  an  engineer,  and  Simonoff,  an  engine-fitter, 
a  variety  of  farcical  intentions  were  proclaimed,  the 
main  outcome  of  this  signal  act  of  rebellion  culmi- 
nating in  a  Uttle  temporary  dislocation  of  the  railway 

52 


THE    DISTRICT    OF    MERV 

and  telegraph  services  and  the  arrest  of  the  ring- 
leaders. None  the  less,  the  activity  of  these  revolu- 
tionary agents  does  constitute  a  possible  menace  to 
the  peace  of  Mid- Asia;  for,  while  the  native  popu- 
lation recks  little  of  the  wiles  of  European  agitators 
and  can  be  overawed  by  the  authorities,  the  situa- 
tion, where  it  concerns  the  ultimate  effect  of  the 
revolutionary  propaganda  upon  the  Russo-European 
army,  rests  upon  the  knees  of  the  gods.  There,  un- 
fortunately, it  must  remain;  emphasising  the  fact 
that,  on  account  of  the  means  of  checking  the  dis- 
semination of  revolutionary  heresies  and  the  growth 
of  the  operations  of  the  agitators  in  Central  Asia 
which  the  Russian  authorities  have  at  hand,  the 
chances  are  much  against  any  violent  or  widespread 
upheaval  of  the  peace  in  these  territories. 


53 


CHAPTER  VI 

FROM  TASHKENT   TO  MERV 

THE  first  station  beyond  Tashkent,  travelling 
towards  Merv,  is  Kauffmanskaya,  where 
begins  the  practice  of  associating  with  the 
scenes  of  their  conquests  the  names  of  officers  who 
have  achieved  distinction  in  Turkestan.  It  is  a 
pleasant  custom  and  serves  to  perpetuate  history  in 
a  manner  which  might  be  copied  with  advantage  in 
India.  In  this  instance  General  von  Kauffman,  who 
became  eventually  an  aide-de-camp  to  the  Tsar,  was 
the  first  Governor-General  of  Russian  Turkestan. 

Between  Tashkent  and  Kauffmanskaya,  which, 
although  insignificant,  is  equipped  with  hospital 
accommodation  for  six  patients,  the  railway  crosses 
by  an  iron  bridge  of  8  sagenes  the  Salar  River, 
itself  a  tributary  of  the  more  important  Chirchik. 
The  line  then  passes  Zangi-ata  and  the  post  station 
of  Ni  alb  ash,  crossing  the  Kur  Kulduk  arik  by  an 
iron  bridge  3  sagenes  in  length,  and  running  near 
Vrevskaya  through  the  Chirchik  Valley,  a  region  of 
special  interest  to  archaeologists.  Stari  Tashkent  or 
Old  Tashkent,  rich  in  historical  associations,  is  in 
this  neighbourhood.  It  was  inhabited  at  one  time 
by  the  Sakis,  who,  in  bygone  centuries,  offered  a 

54 


FROM    TASHKENT    TO    MERV 

stubborn  resistance  to  Alexander  of  Macedon.  Now 
it  is  only  an  insignificant  hamlet,  mere  flotsam  which 
has  been  thrown  up  and  left  by  the  advancing  tide 
of  Russian  conquest.  Lying  to  the  east  of  Stari 
Tashkent  and  opposite  Kirshul  upon  the  left  bank  of 
the  Chirchik  River  are  the  ruins  of  Shuturket  or 
Ushturket  —  the  Town  of  Camels ;  in  the  country 
between  it  and  Binket,  by  which  name  Tashkent  is 
known  among  the  natives,  there  are  other  ruins. 

After  skirting  Bodorodski  and  Kaunchi  the  station 
of  Syr  Darinskaya,  lying  about  1  verst  from  the 
hill  and  lake  of  Utch  Tubeh,  follows,  the  line  crossing 
the  Bossu-su  arik  by  a  second  bridge  of  5  sagenes. 
Until  this  point  the  general  direction  has  been  south- 
west. Ten  versts  from  Syr  Darinskaya  station,  at 
a  point  where  it  crosses  the  Syr  Daria  by  a  four-span 
iron  bridge  160  sagenes  in  length,  the  railway  runs  by 
the  ancient  fortress  and  lake  of  Urumbai  and  turns 
to  the  east  to  thread  the  hills  which  surround  Utch 
Tubeh  Lake. 

The  point  now  arrives  where  the  train  enters 
the  region  distinguished  by  the  Emperor  Nicholas  I 
Canal,  an  extensive  system  of  irrigation  from  the 
waters  of  the  Syr  Daria.  These  works,  which  the 
Ministry  of  Agriculture  introduced,  have  brought 
more  than  100,000  acres  of  the  Golodnaya  steppe 
under  colonisation.  It  is  due  to  the  initiative  and 
generosity  of  the  Grand  Duke  Nicholas  Konstanti- 
novitch  that  the  scheme  was  executed  and  its  success 
is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  seven  villages  —  Niko- 
laievski,  Nadejdinski,  Verkhni,  Nijni  Volinski,  Kon- 

55 


AFGHANISTAN 

nogvardelski,  Obyctovanni,  and  Romanovski  —  have 
been  established  upon  the  rechiimed  areas.  In  the 
main  they  are  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
smaller  crops,  although  one  or  two  are  given  up  to 
the  growing  of  cotton.  The  prosperity  of  the  under- 
taking entails  elaborate  precautions;  in  order  that 
the  works  should  be  unobstructed  the  head  waters 
of  the  system  are  watched  continuously  by  relays  of 
guards. 

The  Golodnaya  zone  of  cultivation  extends  only 
a  verst  or  so  beyond  Golodnaya  station ;  between  this 
little  oasis  and  Chernaievo,  the  next  station,  there 
is  a  barren  wilderness.  After  leaving  Golodnaya 
and  crossing  the  Emperor  Nicholas  I  Canal  by  an 
iron  bridge  8  sagenes  in  length,  the  line  proceeds 
north-east  beyond  the  Syr  Daria,  where  it  turns 
sharply  to  the  east  in  order  to  make  the  junction 
with  the  main  line  from  Krasnovodsk  to  Andijan. 
Owing  to  the  lack  of  cultivation  and  the  scarcity  of 
population  no  commercial  importance  can  be  ascribed 
to  Chernaievo.  Attached  to  the  little  station  is  a 
small  hospital  with  a  capacity'  of  10  beds,  while  the 
railway  workshops  employ  a  permanent  staff  of  100 
workmen.  The  depot  at  this  point,  on  account  of 
the  junction  between  the  line  from  Tashkent  and  the 
extension  to  Andijan,  is  out  of  proportion  with  the 
requirements  of  the  neighbourhood.  Of  course,  here 
as  at  every  station  on  the  line,  there  is  a  large  store 
of  naphtha,  50,000  poods  being  held  against  emer- 
gency in  the  naphtha  reservoir. 

In  relation  to  Chernaievo,  it  would  be  a  pity  to 

56 


FROM   TASHKENT   TO    MERV 

avoid  mention  of  the  distinguished  soldier  who,  sub- 
sequently Governor-General  of  Turkestan  and  dying 
in  disgrace  in  August  of  1898,  gave  his  name  to  the 
place.  Under  happier  circumstances  Chernaieff  might 
have  become  the  Clive  of  Central  Asia.  It  was  he 
who,  suffering  defeat  before  Tashkent  on  October 
2,  1854,  and  determining  to  remove  so  signal  a  stain 
from  the  prestige  of  the  Russian  forces,  repeated 
his  attack  at  a  moment  when  he  had  received  ex- 
plicit orders  from  Alexander  II  to  refrain  from 
doing  so.  With  the  Imperial  despatches  in  his 
pocket  he  led  his  small  forces  to  the  onslaught  and 
it  was  only  when  victory  had  been  secured  that  he 
made  himself  acquainted  with  his  instructions.  The 
reply  he  despatched  to  his  august  sovereign  is  as 
historical  as  the  famous  signal  which  Nelson  dis- 
played at  Trafalgar.  "Sire,"  he  wrote,  "Your  Maj- 
esty's order,  forbidding  me  to  take  Tashkent,  has 
reached  me  only  in  the  city  itself  which  I  have  taken 
and  place  at  your  Majesty's  feet."  The  Tsar  was 
angry  at  the  breach  of  discipline  and,  although  he 
accepted  the  fruits  of  General  Chernaieff's  daring, 
he  never  restored  his  oflBcer  to  favour.  Superseded 
by  General  Romanovski  and  stung  to  the  quick  by 
this  treatment,  Chernaieff  retired  from  the  service, 
a  broken-hearted  man. 

Beyond  Chernaievo,  situated  amid  most  arid  sur- 
roundings and  in  a  locality  where  the  water  is  salt,  is 
Obrutchevo,  so  called  in  honour  of  the  former  Chief 
of  the  General  Staff,  General  Obrutcheff.  Nine 
versts  further  is  Lomakino,  which  derives  its  name 

57 


AFGHANISTAN 

from  General  Lomakin,  an  officer  of  repute  in  the 
Turkoman  Expedition  of  1879.  Between  Loma- 
kino  and  Jizak  the  line  enters  the  province  of  Sam- 
arkand. 

Jizak  station,  named  after  a  district  town  in  the 
province  of  Samarkand,  is  situated  in  the  valley  of 
the  Sanzar  River  in  a  locality  which  is  both  thickly 
populated  and  well  cultivated.  At  the  workshops 
there  is  only  a  staff  of  nine  workmen,  while  the  rail- 
way depot  possesses  little  more  than  engine  sheds 
and  a  naphtha  reservoir  of  10,000  poods.  The  water- 
supply  of  the  station  is  drawn  from  the  Sanzar  River. 
Water  for  the  consumption  of  the  Russian  quarter  of 
the  town,  which  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  northern  slope 
of  the  Nura  Mountains,  2  versts  from  the  railway, 
comes  from  the  Russki  arik. 

In  consequence  of  the  deficiency  of  fresh  water 
Jizak  is  an  unhealthy  town,  more  malaria  prevailing 
in  the  locality  than  in  any  other  part  of  Turkestan, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Murghab  and  Kushk  Val- 
leys. The  Russian  quarter,  which  was  formerly  the 
Kluchevi  fortress,  possesses  a  number  of  public  gar- 
dens. There  are  only  thirty-six  private  houses  in  the 
settlement  and  these,  in  the  main,  are  occupied  by 
officials.  The  public  buildings  include  two  schools, 
a  military  hospital,  a  military  Orthodox  church,  the 
Chancellery  of  the  District  Governor,  the  District 
Treasury,  and  other  offices.  The  population  at  the 
last  census  was  17,000. 

The  native  quarter  is  of  far  greater  commercial 
importance  than  the  Russian  town  and  is  situated 

58 


FROM   TASHKENT   TO    MERV 

3  versts  from  it.  Indeed,  the  latter  is  almost  solely 
a  cantonment. 

The  town  revenue  is  22,842  roubles  and  the  value 
of  Government  property  rather  less  than  600,000 
roubles.     There  are  no  hotels  in  either  quarter. 

The  native  bazaars  are  supposed  to  be  identical 
with  the  town  of  Gaza  through  which  the  armies  of 
Alexander  passed  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  More 
recently  the  Russians  converted  it  into  a  strong  mil- 
itary post.  At  the  time  when  it  was  assaulted  by 
the  Russian  forces  under  General  Romano vski,  upon 
October  18,  1856,  it  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
powerful  fortresses  in  Central  Asia.  In  those  days 
the  town  was  surmounted  by  a  triple  wall,  4  sa- 
genes  in  thickness  and  3J  sagenes  in  height.  High 
towers  defended  the  interior  walls,  while  upon  the 
outer  wall  were  mounted  53  pieces  of  artillery.  At 
that  time  the  strength  of  the  garrison  under  the  com- 
mand of  Alayar  Khan  was  returned  at  10,000  men. 

A  few  versts  before  Jizak  the  line,  running  in  a 
westerly  direction  along  the  southern  border  of  the 
Golodnaya  desert,  crosses  by  an  iron  bridge,  8  sa- 
genes in  length,  the  Sais  Khaneh  ravine.  Beyond 
Jizak  and  after  passing  through  Milyautinskaya  it 
enters  the  Ilyan  Uta  defile,  through  which  flows  the 
Sanzar  River.  This  defile  is  the  only  existing  pass 
in  the  Nuratinski  Range  and  contains  the  famous 
Gates  of  Tamerlane.  Beyond  the  gates  there  is  the 
station  of  Kuropatkino,  named  after  General  Kuro- 
patkin  who  so  long  presided  over  the  destinies  of 
Russia  in  Central  Asia.     From   here   the  line  pro- 

59 


AFGHANISTAN 

ceeds  to  cross  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Nura  Range; 
barely  30  versts  farther  on  it  arrives  at  Rostov- 
tsevo,  which  takes  its  name  from  a  former  Military 
Governor  of  the  Ferghana  province.  Count  Rostov- 
tseff.  Between  Kuropatkino  and  this  station  the  line 
crosses  at  the  foot  of  the  ascent  of  the  Golun  Moun- 
tains a  bridge,  5  sagenes  in  length,  over  the  Balun- 
gur  arik.  From  the  slopes  of  the  Golun  Tau  the 
railway  traverses  the  watershed  of  the  Zerafshan 
and  Sanzar  Rivers,  reaching  at  10  versts  from  Kuro- 
patkino the  highest  elevation  on  the  whole  line,  403 
sagenes  above  sea-level.  From  this  point  the  line 
then  descends  to  Rostovtsevo,  from  where,  after  a 
short  run  of  30  versts,  it  arrives  at  Samarkand. 

With  Rostovtsevo  there  commences  without  doubt 
the  most  interesting  section  of  the  journey  between 
Tashkent  and  Samarkand.  The  market  of  Samar- 
kand has  spread  its  influence  for  many  miles  along 
the  line;  and,  as  a  consequence,  there  is  a  welcome 
note  of  freshness  in  the  scene.  In  addition  to  the 
prosperity  naturally  suggested  by  the  spectacle  of  a 
flourishing  oasis,  the  railway  affords  a  fleeting  inspec- 
tion of  two  important  bridges.  The  first,  an  iron 
bridge  of  seven  spans  and  56  sagenes  in  length, 
crosses  the  Zerafshan  River,  leaving  on  the  right  the 
Ark  of  Tamerlane  and  on  the  left  a  bold,  lofty  moun- 
tain crag.  It  rises  from  two  stone  buttresses  and 
is  supported  by  six  iron  pillars.  The  spans  are  8 
sagenes  in  length  and  composed  of  four  sections,  the 
whole  work  reflecting  the  cantilever  principle.  It 
has  been  adapted  to  traflfic,  vehicles  passing  along 

60 


FROM   TASHKENT    TO    MERV 

either  side  of  the  permanent  way.  Beyond  these 
landmarks  the  railway  picks  its  way  down  the  rocky 
declivity  of  the  Zerafshan  watershed  towards  the 
undulating,  cultivated  lands  which  extend  between 
Chupan  Ata  ridge  and  the  second  bridge,  which, 
thrown  across  the  deep  Obi  Siab  ravine  2  versts 
outside  Samarkand,  possesses  a  length  of  30  sagenes. 
It  is  constructed  in  iron  of  3  spans,  supported  by 
stone  abutments  upon  two  stone  buttresses. 

The  station  of  Samarkand,  second  in  importance 
to  Krasnovodsk,  is  1415  versts  from  Krasnovodsk 
and  332  versts  from  Tashkent.  In  the  station  square 
there  are  a  church,  a  hospital  of  twenty -five  beds, 
two  second-class  schools,  workshops  and  railway 
yards  affording  daily  employment  for  160  men. 
Like  most  stations  of  the  first  class  it  acts  as  a  me- 
dium of  distribution  to  a  wide  area,  stimulating 
not  only  the  industrial  interests  throughout  the 
province  but  imparting  also  an  impetus  to  the  agri- 
cultural activities  of  the  neighbourhood. 

Djuma,  the  first  station  beyond  Samarkand,  is  sit- 
uated in  a  level,  densely  populated  country.  Barely 
thirty  miles  distant,  and  with  it  equally  a  station  of 
the  fourth  class,  is  Nagornaya,  which  in  turn  gives 
place  to  Katta  Kurgan.  This  town,  an  important 
district  centre  in  the  Samarkand  Province,  lies  close 
to  the  railway  in  the  midst  of  much  luxuriant  vege- 
tation. Its  altitude  above  sea-level  is  rather  more 
than  222  sagenes.     The  population  numbers  10,219: 

MOHAMMEDANS  JEWS  RUSSIANS 

8689  1281  249 

61 


AFGHANISTAN 

Its  streets  are  very  wide  and  charmingly  planted  with 
high  trees  —  poplars,  acacias,  willows,  and  white 
ash  — watered  by  ariks  supplied  from  the  Narpai 
stream,  itself  a  tributary  of  the  Zerafshan  River. 
Quite  the  most  prominent  feature  is  a  large  public 
garden  surrounding  the  house  of  the  Governor,  while 
in  connection  with  the  public  buildings  there  is  a 
military  church,  a  military  hospital,  a  general  hos- 
pital of  twenty-five  beds,  and  a  Russian  native 
school.  There  are,  of  course,  the  usual  district 
offices.  Military  headquarters  occupies  a  building 
to  itself,  a  second  affording  domicile  to  the  base 
staff  of  the  Eighth  Turkestan  Rifle  Battalion. 
The  native  bazaar,  an  imposing  centre,  contains: 

Mosques  (smaller) 38    Theological  schools   2 

Synagogues    1     Native  schools   30 

In  the  main  bazaar  there  are  some  300  shops,  the 
business  transacted  at  them  being  concerned  with 
the  cotton  industry  and  the  production  of  vegetable 
oils.  There  is  no  hotel  in  either  part  of  the  town  but 
there  is  an  officers'  club  in  the  Russian  quarter.  The 
general  revenue  from  all  sources  is  about  38,000 
roubles  and  the  largest  industrial  concern  associated 
with  the  trade  of  the  district  is  the  Turkestan  Cot- 
ton Company,  of  which  the  annual  trading  balance 
is  considerably  in  excess  of  half  a  million  roubles. 
The  development  of  cotton  in  the  neighbourhood,  to 
which  the  Turkoman  villages  Mitana  Pefshanba  and 
Chardar  devote  their  energies,  promises  to  become 
a  highly  valuable  venture. 

A  few  versts  beyond  Katta  Kurgan  the  line  crosses 

62 


FROM   TASHKENT   TO    MERV 

the  border  of  the  dominions  of  the  Amir  of  Bokhara. 
The  first  station  beyond  the  frontier  is  Zirabulak,  so 
called  from  heights  which  frown  down  upon  the  rail- 
way from  close  at  hand.  This  little  ridge  of  hills 
forms  an  interesting  link  with  the  Russian  conquest 
of  Turkestan;  it  was  here  that  a  column  under  Gen- 
eral von  Kauffman  routed  the  Bokharan  forces  on 
July  2, 1868.  The  battle  practically  decided  the  Rus- 
sian mastery  of  Central  Asia,  the  peace  concluded  by 
the  Amir  Sayid  Mozaffar  Eddin  having  been  main- 
tained down  to  the  present  time.  The  rich  vegetation 
distinguishing  the  locality  continues  as  far  as  the  next 
station,  Ziadin,  where  the  line  enters  a  cultivated 
zone  which  is  watered  from  the  Zerafshan  and  the 
Narpai  streams.  The  town  possesses  a  native  popu- 
lation of  8000,  with  a  revenue  of  rather  less  than 
16,000  roubles.  Traffic  passing  through  the  neigh- 
bourhood is  concerned  chiefly  with  the  importation 
of  goods  from  Russia  and  the  export  of  cotton.  Be- 
yond Ziadin,  which  is  administered  by  an  important 
Beg,  the  line  runs  to  Kermine,  a  station  of  the  third 
class  constructed  to  meet  the  convenience  of  the  pres- 
ent Amir  of  Bokhara,  who,  previous  to  ascending  the 
throne,  had  been  the  Beg  of  Kermine.  The  town, 
which  has  a  population  of  12,000,  is  dependent  almost 
entirely  upon  the  proceeds  of  the  cotton  industry. 
The  native  fort,  standing  in  the  town,  has  been  con- 
verted into  a  Russian  garrison,  a  battalion  of  the 
Turkestan  Rifles  occupying  the  post. 

Melik,  a  small  station  occupying  a  position  at  the 
point  where  the  line  from  Tashkent  meets  the  Zeraf- 

63 


AFGHANISTAN 

shall  River,  has,  unfortunately,  nothing  with  which 
to  commend  itself.  The  surrounding  steppe  is  des- 
titute of  vegetation  and  only  sparsely  inhabited.  At 
Kizil  steppe,  which  follows,  there  are  a  depot  and 
workshops  for  a  permanent  staff  of  eighteen  men.  It 
stands  within  easy  proximity  of  the  four  centres,  Cidj 
Duvan,  Adiz  Abad,  Vaganzi,  and  Bustan,  where  there 
is  a  combined  population  of  20,000. 

The  cultivation  of  cotton  is  the  prominent  charac- 
teristic of  this  region,  and  Kuyu  Mazar,  the  next  sta- 
tion, entirely  derives  its  prosperity  from  the  industry. 
In  its  immediate  neighbourhood,  moreover,  there  are 
several  kishlaks  devoted  to  it.  A  little  further  on 
the  line  enters  a  region  of  sandy  clay  which,  con- 
tinuing for  some  distance,  finally  gives  place  to  the 
areas  of  the  fertile  oasis  that  surrounds  Bokhara. 

Kagan,  the  station  for  Bokhara,  belongs  to  the  first 
class.  It  is  situated  1182  versts  from  Krasnovodsk, 
565  versts  from  Tashkent,  and  ranks  third  among  the 
stations  of  the  Central  Asian  Railway,  only  yielding 
pride  of  place  to  Krasnovodsk  and  Askhabad.  The 
station  is  erected  upon  ground  specially  granted  by 
the  Amir  for  the  purpose,  the  Russian  settlement  of 
New  Bokhara  also  being  placed  at  this  point.  The 
native  town  of  Bokhara,  the  capital  of  the  EZhanate 
and  connected  with  the  main  station  by  a  branch 
line,  is  13  versts  distant.  It  is  the  most  important 
centre  in  the  Khanate  and  maintains  commercial  rela- 
tions with  Moscow,  Nijninovgorod,  Lodz,  Siberia, 
India,  Persia,  and  Afghanistan,  the  annual  value  of 
its  business  running  into  many  millions  of  roubles. 

04 


FROM    TASHKENT   TO    MERV 

There  are  several  banks  but  only  two  of  importance 
—  the  Russian  Imperial  Bank  and  the  Russo-Chinese 
Bank.  The  residence  of  the  Russian  Political  Agent 
is  in  New  Bokhara  and  the  Amir  also  has  a  palace 
there,  constructed  in  hybrid  Byzantine  style. 

The  population  of  the  Russian  settlement,  returned 
at  6000  inhabitants  and  drawn  from  various  nation- 
alities, includes  the  following  European  and  Asiatic 
elements : 

Russians 378    Hindoos 33 

Poles     40     Afghans     24 

Germans 24     Sarts 681 

Greeks    8     Persians     252 

Armenians 124     Kirghiz      92 

Jews    345 

The  remainder  is  made  up  of  subjects  of  the  Amir. 
The  Russian  quarter  also  contains  130  brick  bunga- 
lows, a  hospital  with  20  beds,  barracks  for  the  3rd 
and  4th  companies  of  the  Second  Railway  Battal- 
ion, numerous  shops,  and  military  go-downs. 

The  trade  passing  through  Bokhara  is  very  com- 
prehensive. It  embraces  cotton,  skins,  wool,  cotton 
prints,  sugar,  and  a  large  importation  of  Russian 
manufactures.  The  bazaars  of  the  native  city  show  a 
very  varied  assortment  of  silken  fabrics,  copper-ware, 
silver-work,  carpets,  leather,  and  weapons,  attracting 
traders  from  India  and  Persia,  besides  the  Turkoman 
and  Khivan  districts. 

The  cultivated  zone  which  lies  around  Bokhara  and 
Kagan  does  not  extend  for  any  considerable  distance 
beyond  the  immediate  precincts  of  the  capital  of  the 
Khanate.     In  running  towards  Merv  the  railway 

65 


AFGHANISTAN 

passes  through  a  region  where  the  water  difficulty  is 
perpetual.  The  waterless  zone  may  be  said  to  begin 
with  Murgak,  where  water  from  the  Zerafshan  River 
is  supplied  in  tanks  by  the  railway.  This  system  is 
also  adopted  for  the  next  station,  Yakatut,  which 
although  insignificant  receives  a  comparatively  im- 
portant volume  of  trade.  Irrigation  is  not  encouraged 
and  the  water  coming  by  the  railway  is  very  care- 
fully distributed  to  a  population  that,  including  the 
large  village  of  Yakatut  and  a  few  smaller  hamlets, 
amounts  in  all  to  3000  souls. 

Kara  Kul  follows  as  the  line  runs  towards  the  south, 
and  10  versts  distant  from  it  there  is  the  native  town 
of  the  same  name.  At  one  time  the  centre  of  a  large 
and  flourishing  oasis,  the  drifting  sands  from  the  Kara 
Kum  have  encroached  until  it  has  been  ruined  and 
the  total  population  of  the  region  reduced  to  5000 
people.  The  place  is  watered  by  the  Zerafshan,  upon 
whose  volume  so  much  of  the  prosperity  of  Bokhara 
depends.  This  river,  which  was  called  by  the  an- 
cients the  Polytimsetus,  takes  its  rise  in  the  glaciers 
of  the  Kara  Mountains,  270  miles  east  of  Samarkand. 
Its  upper  reaches  resemble  a  succession  of  cataracts 
and  it  is  altogether  too  shallow  for  navigation.  The 
average  width  is  210  feet;  more  than  100  canals,  some 
of  w^hich  are  140  feet  broad,  are  supplied  from  this 
source  of  Bokhara's  greatness.  The  capital  of  the 
Khanate  is  fed  by  one  of  them,  called  the  Shari 
Rud,  and  over  35  feet  in  width.  The  river  reaches 
its  full  volume  during  the  w^inter  and  the  spring. 
Three  versts  before  Kara  Kul,  at  a  point  where  the 

66 


FROM    TASHKENT    TO    MERV 

stream  breaks  up  into  a  series  of  small  feeders,  a  wide 
bridge,  15  sagenes  in  length,  affords  passage  to  the 
railway. 

In  spite  of  diminishing  importance  Kara  Kul  still 
attracts  and  disperses  a  certain  volume  of  trade,  the 
bulk  of  which  is  associated  with  the  cotton  factory 
of  M.  Levine  and  a  distillery  controlled  by  a  French 
syndicate,  the  two  properties  being  situated  close  to 
the  station. 

Beyond  Kara  Kul,  as  far  as  Khoja  Davlet,  there  is 
a  considerable  area  of  cultivation.  With  this  station 
the  agricultural  possibilities  of  the  quarter,  due  in  the 
main  to  irrigation  by  the  waters  of  the  Oxus,  come  to 
an  end  and  the  line  begins  to  pass  through  the  shift- 
ing sands  of  Sundukli.  From  this  point,  too,  the 
growth  of  the  saxaoul  is  promoted  as  a  protection  to 
the  railway  from  the  sand  drifts.  At  Farab  station, 
where  the  growth  and  cultivation  of  sand  shrubs  has 
been  studied,  and  where  there  is  a  special  nursery 
covering  five  dessiatines,  some  little  success  in  this 
direction  has  been  attained.  Unfortunately  the 
moving  sands  are  the  great  and  ever-present  menace 
to  the  prosperity  of  this  neighbourhood.  In  contrast 
with  these  outlying  edges  of  the  district  where  there 
is  nothing  but  a  waste  of  salt  marshes  and  sand  dunes, 
there  is  a  wonderful  wealth  of  vegetation  along  the 
banks  of  the  river.  The  station  workshops,  where 
some  eighty  workmen  are  daily  employed,  the  small 
hospital,  the  railway  buildings,  and  the  technical 
school  are  embowered  by  trees  of  the  most  luxuriant 
growth.     None  the  less  Farab,  although  associated 

C7 


AFGHANISTAN 

with  the  headquarters  of  the  Oxus  steamers,  is  too 
close  to  Charjui  to  be  of  much  importance. 

Charjui,  opposite  to  Farab  at  the  crossing  of  the 
Oxus,  Hes  1070  versts  from  Krasnovodsk  and  677 
versts  from  Tashkent.  The  town  is  situated  m  the 
midst  of  a  fertile  oasis  lying  along  the  banks  of  the 
Amu  Daria.  The  Russian  settlement  is  close  to 
the  station,  but  16  versts  away  there  is  the  native 
centre  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  This  border 
stronghold  surmounts  a  hill  to  the  south  of  the 
railway  line,  bearing  in  its  rugged  outline  a  faint 
resemblance  to  Edinburgh  Castle.  The  settlement, 
nestling  at  its  foot,  contains  the  headquarters  of  the 
17th  Turkestan  Rifle  Battalion.  The  local  force 
amounts  to  one  battalion  of  Turkestan  Rifles  and  one 
squadron  of  Cossacks.  The  Russian  quarter,  built 
upon  ground  presented  by  the  Amir  to  the  Russian 
Government,  covers  a  wide  area  upon  the  left  bank 
of  the  stream  and  extends  along  both  sides  of  the 
railway.  The  point  is  of  extreme  interest,  since  it 
is  here  that  the  original  bridge  over  the  Amu  Daria 
was  constructed.  The  new  work,  a  magnificent  steel 
girder  affair  only  lately  opened,  takes  the  place  of 
the  earlier  wooden  structure  which,  some  4600  yards 
in  length,  withstood  the  effects  of  climate  and  the 
stream  for  many  years. 

The  trade  and  traffic  of  Charjui,  one  of  the  most 
active  stations  on  the  Central  Asian  system,  is  as 
follows : 


68 


FROM    TASHKENT    TO    MERV 

PASSENGERS 

AKRrVALa  DEPARTURES 

37,331  36.796 

IMPORTS 

MQitary  stores    280,399  poods 

Refined  sugar    63,534  " 

Sanded  sugar 20,043  " 

Yarn  and  thread 26,320  " 

Kerosene    95,303  " 

Timber     325,390  " 

Manufactures   45,601  " 

Iron 34,287  " 

Spirits 13,709  " 

Wine  grapes 13,681  "■ 

Green  tea     21,373  " 

Rice    48,876  " 

Wheat  flour 117,593  " 

Goods,  various    714,175  " 

EXPORTS 

Raisins 10,985  poods 

Skins 12,321  " 

Manufactured  goods    8,499  " 

Carpets 11,073  " 

Sheepskins     18,508  " 

Caracal 3,805  " 

Cotton  seed       85,825  " 

Cotton    516,641  " 

Wool 104,243  " 

Goods,  various 191,584  " 

The  combined  population  of  the  town  comprises 
7569: 

Russians  NATrvEs 

MEN  WOMEN  MEN  WOMEN 

2247  1254  2651  1417 

The  Russian  quarter  contains: 

Houses   469     General  hospital 1 

Schools     3     Military  hospitals    2 

Clubs    2 

69 


AFGHANISTAN 

In  addition  to  this  there  is  an  extensive  botanical 
nursery,  simihir  to  that  which  exists  at  Farab  and 
devoted  to  the  same  purpose.  Equally  with  Farab 
it  serves  as  headquarters  for  the  Amu  Daria  flotilla, 
which  plies  between  Patta  Hissar  on  the  south 
and  Petro  Alexandrovsk  and  Kliiva  on  the  north. 
Traffic  upon  the  river  has  increased  in  propor- 
tion to  the  development  of  trade  along  the  Central 
Asian  Railway,  the  steamer  and  general  commu- 
nication on  the  Amu  Daria,  taken  in  conjunction 
with  the  caravan  routes  between  Charjui  and  the 
outlj'ing  parts  of  the  Khanates  of  Bokhara  and 
Khiva,  combining  to  render  it  a  point  of  supreme 
hnportance. 

As  soon  as  the  Oxus  and  Charjui  have  been  left 
behind,  only  two  stations  remain  before  the  frontier  of 
the  Trans-Caspian  Province  is  reached.  One  of  these 
two  places,  Barkhani,  a  small  station  of  the  fifth  class, 
serves,  with  Charjui  and  Farab,  for  the  experimen- 
tal production  of  desert  shrubs.  Between  the  Amu 
Daria  and  Barkhani  the  spreading  vegetation,  which 
changes  the  banks  of  the  Amu  Daria  into  verdant 
slopes,  gives  place  to  the  Black  Sands  of  Bokhara, 
the  famous  Kara  Kum  Desert.  Six  versts  beyond 
the  second  place,  Karaul  Kuyu,  the  line  crosses  the 
Trans-Caspian  frontier,  proceeding  through  the  heart 
of  the  Kara  Kum.  The  first  station  in  the  desert  is 
Repetek,  where  there  are  a  small  depot  and  workshops 
for  a  permanent  staff  of  ten  men.  The  water  here, 
as  well  as  for  the  next  tw^o  stations,  is  brought  from 
the  Amu  Daria  at  Charjui  or  from  the  Murghab  at 

70 


FROM    TASHKENT    TO    MERV 

Merv,  according  to  the  direction  in  which  the  train 
may  be  travelHng. 

From  Repetek  the  line  enters  the  Merv  district. 
Passing  Pesski,  Uch  Adja,  and  Ravnina,  the  first  and 
last  of  which  belong  to  the  fourth  degree  and  the 
remaining  one  to  the  third  degree  of  stations,  the  line 
runs  into  Annenkovo,  named  after  the  famous  con- 
structor of  the  Trans-Caspian  Railway,  General 
Annenkoff.  The  station  itself  lies  in  a  hollow  and  4 
versts  before  the  train  reaches  it  there  begins  that 
wonderful  growth  which  Nature  herself  has  supplied 
to  resist  the  encroachment  of  the  Black  Sands.  It  is 
here  that  the  desert  shrub  saxaoul,  with  its  long  pen- 
etrating roots  —  the  great  stand-by  of  the  Russians 
in  their  fight  against  the  sand  —  is  encountered  in 
its  native  state.  Although  special  nurseries  have 
been  established  at  many  stations  for  the  cultivation 
of  this  shrub,  the  railway  authorities  employ  its  roots 
for  firewood,  encouraging  the  Tekkes  in  the  surround- 
ing districts  to  bring  it  into  the  yards.  As  instances 
of  the  destruction  with  which  this  plant  is  assailed 
nearly  46,000  poods  of  saxaoul  root  are  supplied 
annually  to  the  railway  authorities  by  the  Tekkes 
at  Ravnina,  while  170,000  poods  are  brought  to  the 
authorities  at  Annenkovo  by  the  Tekke  gatherers  in 
that  part,  the  activities  of  these  people  creating  a 
very  serious  prospect  since  the  artificial  cultivation 
of  the  shrub  in  the  nurseries  does  not  keep  pace  with 
its  disappearance  in  the  Veldt. 

Beyond  Annenkovo  there  is  Kurban  Kala.     One 
verst  further  on  this  gives  place  to  Bairam  AH,  108 

71 


AFGHANISTAN 

sagenes  above  sea-level.  The  station  adjoins  the 
gardens  of  the  Murghab  Imperial  Estate  which, 
founded  in  1887  by  Imperial  enterprise,  the  Tsar 
having  sanctioned  the  restoration  of  certain  irrigation 
works,  has  assisted  in  securing  a  full  measure  of  pros- 
perity to  these  areas.  Trim  orchards  and  broad 
roads  surround  the  station  where  huge  piles  of  cotton 
may  be  seen  awaiting  transport,  the  evident  prosper- 
ity of  this  smiling  oasis  affording  striking  contrast 
w^ith  the  spectacle  of  Old  Merv.  Ruins,  revealing 
a  sombre  vista  of  broken  w^alls  and  shattered  houses, 
the  relics  of  a  city  which  passed  into  decay  in  1784, 
cover  a  space  of  forty  square  versts.  It  is  the  name 
of  the  chief  of  that  city  that  is  now  perpetuated  in  the 
adjoining  station,  Bairam  Ali.  As  the  strong  ruler 
of  the  countryside,  he  had  held  in  check  the  robber 
tribes  until  he  and  his  city  w^ere  overthrown  in  their 
turn  by  Amir.  Murad,.  the  founder  of  the  Bokharan 
dynasty. 

The  country  round  Bairam  Ali  is  level  and  the 
place  draws  its  water  from  the  Murghab  River.  Its 
commercial  importance  is  progressing  and,  at  pres- 
ent, there  is  a  steady  volume  of  trade  passing 
through  it. 

The  section  of  the  railway  from  Tashkent  now  ter- 
minates at  905  versts  from  Tashkent  and  842  versts 
from  Krasnovodsk,  after  crossing  the  Tokhtamish 
arik  by  an  eight-span  iron  girder  bridge.  This  work 
rests  upon  iron  piles,  the  length  of  the  spans  being 
15  sagenes  each.  The  commercial  importance  of 
Merv,  in  view  of  the  rapid  development  of  its  trade 

72 


FROM    TASHKENT    TO    MERV 

with  the  Murghab  Valley  and  the  surrounding  oases 
of  Yulatan,  Pendjeh,  and  Tejend,  imparts  to  the  town 
an  economic  significance  little  less  than  that  which 
emanates  from  its  strategic  aspect. 

The  station  of  Merv,  as  the  junction  from  which 
commences  the  Murghab  branch  line,  is  particularly 
well  constructed.  There  is  a  depot  with  spacious 
repairing  yards  and  very  commodious  workshops, 
where  250  workmen  are  daily  employed.  In  addi- 
tion there  are  extensive  railway  go-downs  and  quar- 
ters for  the  employees  of  the  company.  If  these 
represent  merely  the  requirements  of  the  station,  in  a 
more  general  way  there  is  a  hospital  with  several 
beds,  a  building  for  the  accommodation  of  emigrants 
and,  in  the  immediate  precincts  of  the  station,  bar- 
racks for  the  2d  Trans-Caspian  Railway  Battalion. 
Close  to  the  station,  which  possesses  special  impor- 
tance because  of  being  the  only  spot  in  a  length  of  200 
versts  up  and  down  the  line  where  fresh  water  may 
be  obtained,  such  water  being  derived  from  the  Mur- 
ghab River,  an  iron  bridge  carries  the  railway  across 
the  river.  The  spans  of  the  bridge  are  30  sagenes 
and  a  paved  carriage-way  is  laid  upon  either  side  of 
the  metals.  Beyond  the  bridge  the  road  runs  par- 
allel with  the  Central  Asian  Railway  until  it  reaches 
the  Murghab  River.  Down  the  banks  of  this  stream 
it  branches  off  towards  the  Kushk  and  Murghab  Val- 
leys, holding  solitary  communion  with  the  Murghab 
Valley  Railway  as  far  as  the  junction  of  the  Pendjeh- 
Tanur  Sangi  extension  with  the  line  to  Kushkinski 
Post. 

73 


AFGHANISTAN 

The  appearance  of  Merv  is  monotonous.  An 
absence  of  tropical  foliage,  the  conventional  charac- 
ter of  the  bungalows,  and  the  broad,  empty  streets 
compose  an  exterior  which  is  altogether  desolate. 
The  high  temperature,  which  frequently  exceeds  100 
degrees,  crushes  initiative,  and  possibly  it  is  due  to 
the  glare  of  the  sun  and  the  thick  dust  which  rises  in 
white  clouds  from  the  roads,  that  the  thoroughfares 
are  deserted  between  sunrise  and  sunset.  The  Mur- 
ghab  River  divides  the  town  into  a  commercial  quar- 
ter, prominently  situated  upon  the  right  bank  133 
sagenes  above  sea-level,  and  a  military  settlement 
upon  the  opposite  bank  but  connected  by  a  pontoon 
bridge.  Within  the  military  quarter  there  are  the 
barracks,  and  the  general  offices  of  the  Administra- 
tion, as  well  as  a  large  garrison  hospital  and  a  military 
club.  The  civil  section  of  the  town  contains  a  dis- 
trict hospital  of  fifteen  beds  and  a  casino,  supported 
by  the  Government.     The  native  bazaar  is  remote. 


74 


CHAPTER    VII 

TEE   NORTHERN   BORDER 

THE  Amu  Daria,  the  more  modern  rendering 
of  the  name  of  the  classic  Oxus,  serves  along 
the  north  and  north-east  of  Afghanistan  for 
a  distance  of  330  miles  as  the  frontier  between  Afghan 
territory  and  the  dominions  of  the  Amir  of  Bokhara. 
Rising  in  the  region  of  the  Pamirs  this  river,  which 
is  among  the  most  historical  in  Asia,  falls  into  the 
Aral  Sea  after  traversing  more  than  1400  miles. 
The  area  of  its  basin  is  estimated  at  308,804  square 
kilometres,  while  for  a  space  of  200  miles  it  flows 
through  Bokharan  territory,  after  which,  for  a  further 
200  miles,  it  acts  as  the  frontier  between  the  Syr 
Daria  Province  and  the  Khanate  of  Khiva. 

Contributing  to  the  volume  of  its  upper  waters 
are  two  principal  streams,  the  Pamir  and  the  Panja. 
The  latter  is  the  name  by  which  the  Upper  Oxus 
is  known.  The  word  Panja,  which  is  somewhat 
generic,  is  believed  to  refer  to  five  streams  existing  in 
this  region.  It  is  related  also  to  the  names  of  the 
well-known  Afghan  forts  of  Kala  Panja  and  Kala 
Bar  Panja.  It  denotes  the  five  fingers.  It  will  be 
admitted  that  the  existence  of  a  sacred  edifice  erected 
over  a  stone  bearing  the  imprint  of  the  hand  of 

75 


AFGHANISTAN 

Hazrat  Ali,  son-in-law  of  Mohammed,  and  situated 
in  the  vicinity  of  Kala  Panja,  is  presumptive  evi- 
dence of  an  affinity  l)etween  the  existence  of  the  five 
streams  and  the  shrine.  Farther  down  the  river, 
in  Shignan,  at  Kala  Bar  Panja  which  means  "The 
fort  over  the  Panja/'  a  fort  has  been  constructed 
above  a  similar  mark  to  that  defining  the  position 
of  Kala  Panja.  There  is  little  doubt  that  some 
numerical  quantity  is  expressed  in  the  nomenclature. 
In  this  wilderness,  which  in  winter  is  a  world  of 
snow  and  ice,  there  is  another  river,  the  x\k-su,  so 
that  there  are  three  streams,  the  Pamir,  Panja,  and 
the  Ak-su.  This  trio  drains  the  Pamirs,  the  Ak-su 
uniting  with  the  Panja  at  Kala  AVamar,  the  others  at 
Langar  Kisht.  The  Pamir  and  the  Ak-su  rise  amid 
the  Nicholas  glaciers  which  drain  into  Lake  Victoria 
and  Lake  Chakmaktin;  and,  while  neither  of  these 
lakes  can  be  identified  positively  as  the  sole  source 
of  the  Oxus,  nor  the  Pamir  River  be  said  to  represent 
its  origin,  rivers,  glaciers,  and  lakes  are  associated 
very  closely  with  its  head  waters.  The  larger  lake, 
known  as  Lake  Victoria,  and  discovered  in  1838  by 
Wood,  is  situated  on  the  Pamir  River;  the  smaller 
lake,  Lake  Chakmaktin,  is  on  the  Ak-su.  The 
Pamir  Daria  flows  through  the  Great  Pamir.  It 
possesses  direct  connection  with  the  Oxus  at  Langar 
Kisht.  The  Ak-su  flows  through  the  Little  Pamir. 
Lake  Chakmaktin,  lying  on  the  Little  Pamir,  is  sit- 
uated 290  feet  lower  than  Lake  Victoria,  which  is 
13,390  feet  above  sea-level.  Panja,  the  third  stream, 
rises  in  the  congeries  of  glaciers  which  lie  immediately 

76 


THE    NORTHERN    BORDER 

below  the  Wakh-jir  Pass  —  indisputably  separate 
from  the  Nicholas  glacier  and  without  any  connec- 
tion with  the  two  lakes.  The  five  rivers  which  make 
up  the  waters  of  the  Panja  or  Oxus  are  the  Pamir, 
Panja,  Ak-su  or  Murghab,  Shakh,  and  Ghund.  Many 
of  these  streams  bear  two,  three,  or  even  five  names, 
this  engaging  variety  of  description  springing  from 
the  fact  that  the  several  parts  of  the  same  stream 
are  differently  described  by  the  various  natives  — 
Afghans,  Chinese,  Tajiks,  and  Kirghiz  — who  frequent 
the  Pamir  region.  In  some  cases,  too,  explorers  have 
added  names  derived  from  imperfect  interpretation 
of  local  information,  until  it  may  be  said  that  few 
rivers  in  the  world  bear  so  many  names  as  does  the 
Oxus  in  its  higher  reaches. 

If  we  take  the  upper  stream  and  follow  it  from  its 
source  in  the  glaciers  which  lie  below  the  Wakh-jir 
Pass,  it  will  be  found  that  in  its  immediate  descent 
from  this  field,  but  without  taking  its  name  from  the 
adjacent  pass,  the  waters  of  the  Amu  Daria  in  their 
higher  reaches  are  styled  the  Panja.  This  title 
extends  along  the  Upper  Oxus  until,  at  Bozai  Gum- 
baz,  it  is  joined  by  the  first  contribution  from  the 
Nicholas  glaciers.  This  affluent  is  described  indif- 
ferently by  the  name  Burgutai,  Little  Pamir  Daria, 
and  Kuntai-su;  a  little  before  the  meeting  of  the 
Burgutai  with  the  Panja  this  stream  divides  east 
and  west,  the  eastern  arm  passing  into  the  channel 
of  the  Ak-su  above  Lake  Chakmaktin  so  that  the 
Burgutai  stream  feeds  equally  the  Ak-su  and  Ab-i- 
Panja  Rivers.     The  Burgutai  is  narrow,  shallow,  and 

77 


AFGHANISTAN 

inconstant;  from  its  start  to  its  junction  with  the 
Panja  it  possesses  a  course  of  only  ten  miles  and  is 
solely  of  interest  as  indicating  one  of  the  tributaries 
which  go  to  swell  the  volume  of  the  Oxus.  Below 
Bozai  Gumbaz  the  stream  which  rises  in  the  Wakh- 
jir  glaciers  bears  the  five  names  Ab-i-Wakhan, 
Wakh-jir,  Sarhad,  Wakh-su,  and  Ab-i-Panja,  the  sev- 
eral variations  of  the  name  Panja. 

The  fall  of  the  Panja  from  its  source  to  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Sarhad  has  been  estimated  at  1247 
metres  in  75  kilometres.  It  will  be  gathered,  accord- 
ingly, that  it  is  a  very  rapid  stream  until  it  reaches 
the  Sarhad.  At  Bozai  Gumbaz  and  for  a  short  dis- 
tance along  the  Wakhan  Valley,  the  river  slackens 
until,  turning  northwards  beyond  Ishkashim,  it  re- 
covers and  tumbles  swiftly  forward.  Before  leaving 
the  Wakhan  Valley  it  receives,  on  the  right  bank, 
the  stream  which  flows  through  Lake  Victoria  and 
is  known  incorrectly  as  Ab-i-Panja  and  correctly  as 
Pamir  Daria.  At  one  time,  in  consequence  of  Wood's 
error,  it  was  confounded  with  the  head  waters  of 
the  Oxus.  Neither  in  volume,  length,  nor  through 
the  possession  of  any  requisite  characteristic  can  the 
Pamir  Daria  be  accounted  the  parent  stream.  This 
river  describes  from  its  source  in  the  glacial  fields  of 
Mount  Nicholas  a  fall  of  153  metres  over  the  first 
20  kilometres  of  its  course.  From  Lake  Victoria 
proper  to  Mazar-tepe,  where  the  Khargosh  River 
flows  into  it,  the  Pamir  Daria  falls  285  metres  in 
40  kilometres.  From  Mazar-tepe  to  Langar  Kisht, 
where  it  unites  with  the  waters  of  the  Panja,  Ab-i- 

78 


THE    NORTHERN    BORDER 

Panja,  or  Ab-i-Wakhan,  there  is  a  further  fall  of 
831  metres  in  60  kilometres.  From  Langar  Kisht 
to  Rang  the  fall  is  327  metres  in  100  kilometres, 
the  pace  of  the  river  in  this  stretch  of  the  Wakhan 
Valley  being  comparatively  sluggish.  From  Rang, 
which  is  a  little  east  of  Ishkashim,  to  Khorok  in 
Shignan  there  is  a  perceptible  increase  in  the  cur- 
rent of  the  river,  its  mean  fall  being  702  metres  in 
100  kilometres. 

The  Panja  in  its  passage  through  the  Wakhan 
Valley  presents  a  number  of  interesting  contrasts. 
In  its  higher  reaches  at  first  a  tumbling  mountain 
torrent,  it  becomes  between  Semut,  which  is  below 
Langar  Kisht,  and  Shirtar  a  slow,  lifeless  stream,  so 
nerveless  and  placid  that  it  ceases  to  carry  in  its  cur- 
rent the  masses  of  suspended  matter  which  hitherto 
have  been  swept  along  with  it.  At  Langar  Kisht, 
the  junction  of  the  Pamir  Daria  with  the  Panja, 
there  is  a  deposit  of  broken  rocks  and  smooth  water- 
borne  stones  which  have  been  brought  down  from 
the  glaciers.  The  wide  area,  covered  by  these  quan- 
tities of  debris  and  detritus  from  the  upper  valleys, 
makes  the  banks  and  bed  of  the  river  resemble  a 
deserted  beach,  where  human  life  seldom  enters  and 
vegetation  does  not  flourish.  Li  places  where  depos- 
its of  sand  have  been  left  by  the  stream,  the  wind 
has  whipped  the  loose  surfaces  into  small  dunes;  in 
other  directions  large  tracts  of  this  drift  sand  have 
been  covered  by  tamarisk ;  elsewhere  there  is  no  veg- 
etation and  the  tamarisk  has  not  appeared.  In 
midsummer,   when    the    river  diminishes  and  high 

79 


AFGHANISTAN 

winds  blow  through  the  gorge,  the  scattered  patches 
of  sand  left  by  the  stream  are  caught  up  by  the  gales 
and  swept  in  clouds  of  fine  dust  across  the  fields 
beyond. 

In  the  wider  valleys,  such  as  those  at  Langar 
Kisht  and  the  Zung,  the  Panja  divides  into  a  num- 
ber of  arms.  These  small  channels  contain  danger- 
ous quicksands.  The  stream  itself  is  black  with 
mud,  the  river  at  this  point  being  charged  with  a 
fertilising  matter  which,  where  deposited,  is  followed 
usually  by  a  growth  of  luxuriant  vegetation.  The 
Pamir  Daria  similarly  breaks  up,  but  its  channels 
are  free  from  quicksand  and  the  water  carries  little 
mud  in  suspension.^  Between  Langar  Kisht  and 
Ptuk  there  is  a  belt  of  vegetation.  The  banks  are 
covered  with  grass;  there  are  many  willows,  white 
poplars,  and  here  and  there  impenetrable  copses 
of  camelthorn.  Beyond  Ptuk  the  beneficent  char- 
acter of  the  river  changes,  and  in  the  valley  between 
Semut  and  Shirtar  the  banks  reflect  a  waste  of  sand 
dunes  and  patches  of  drift  sand.  The  mud  deposits 
of  the  main  stream,  too,  appear  to  be  exhausted  at 
Ptuk,  where  there  is  a  large  intake  of  glacial  water 
from  a  number  of  rapid  streams  which  come  dow^n 
from  the  Hindoo  Kush.  As  if  the  moraines  dis- 
charged their  stones  and  gravel  into  these  snow- 
fed  torrents  there  exists  at  this  point  a  stretch  of 
river-bed,  desolate  and  barren. 

The  mountains  at  Langar  Kisht  and  Zung  recede 
considerably  on  either  side  from  the  river  and  thus 

^  "Through  the  Unknown  Pamirs."     O.  Olufsen, 

80 


THE    NORTHERN    BORDER 

give  room  for  a  broad  valley.  But  they  come  together 
immediately  west  of  Kala  Panja,  forming  a  narrow 
ravine  through  which  the  Panja  can  just  pass. 
Beyond  this  gorge  the  valley  expands  to  a  breadth 
of  several  kilometres  and  the  river  divides  into  arms 
dotted  with  little  islands  which  are  covered  with 
thorny  copses.  After  this  lake-like  extension  the 
river,  from  the  village  of  Shirtar  down  stream,  con- 
sists of  one  channel  which,  here  and  there,  widens 
out,  making  space  for  further  inlets. 

From  Dersai  to  Nut  the  stream  contracts  to  an 
average  breadth  of  25  metres  and  dashes  with  such 
suppressed  energy  between  the  steep  banks  of  its 
rocky  bed  that  the  boom  of  the  tumbling  waters 
echoes  throughout  the  valley.  From  Dersai  to  Si 
Khanah  the  mountains  run  so  close  together,  north 
and  south,  that  in  most  places  there  is  only  room  for 
the  actual  bed  of  the  river,  and  it  is  only  near  the 
mouths  of  the  small  hill-side  streams  that  a  few 
hundred  square  yards  of  arable  soil  may  be  found. 
About  3  kilometres  west  of  Si  Khanah  there  are  a 
number  of  cataracts,  and  immediately  south  of  Rang 
the  sands,  brought  down  by  the  stream,  begin  again 
to  form  into  dunes.  From  Nut  to  Samchan,  in  the 
province  of  Ishkashim,  the  river  valley  becomes 
broader,  the  Panja  dividing  into  several  arms.  The 
banks  here  are  covered  with  thick  copses,  the  haunt 
of  the  wild  boar  and  the  home  of  many  birds;  but  in 
the  province  of  Gharan,  a  few  kilometres  to  the  north 
of  Samchan,  the  valley  of  the  Panja  becomes  a  mere 
cleft  in  the  mountains,  the  river  retaining  this  form 

81 


AFGHANISTAN 

until  it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Ghund  at  Charog. 
At  Darband,  on  the  boundary  between  Gharan  and 
Ishkashim  and  before  the  meeting  of  the  Ghund 
Daria  with  the  Panja,  the  stream  breaking  down  a 
number  of  cataracts  tears  through  its  narrow  moun- 
tain passage  and  becomes  a  most  imposing  water- 
fall; indeed,  from  Darband  almost  to  Charog  the 
stream  of  the  Panja  rusliing  along  its  rocky  bed  is 
one  vast  foaming  cataract  which,  dashing  against 
the  mountains,  crushes  everything  that  falls  into  its 
whirling  eddies. 

The  bulk  of  the  tributary  streams  of  the  Panja 
River  is  found  between  Langar  Kisht  and  Namagut, 
the  presence  of  the  Hindoo  Kush  glaciers  being  the 
source  of  an  extensive  water-supply  draining  into 
the  river.  The  length  of  these  streams  seldom 
exceeds  15  kilometres  and  the  more  general  course  is 
one  of  10  kilometres.  Their  period  of  greatest  activ- 
ity is  at  the  time  of  the  summer  floods,  when  the  ice 
melts  and  the  heavy  snows  are  broken  up.  At  such 
a  moment  a  large  volume  of  water  sweeps  through 
their  shallow  channels  carrying  with  it  huge  boulders, 
masses  of  ice,  many  tons  of  snow,  and  running 
w4th  too  great  force  to  present  facilities  for  fording. 
North  from  Ishkashim  the  tributaries  of  the  Panja 
diminish  both  in  number  and  size.  The  rivers  flow- 
ing from  the  Badakshan  Mountains  and  the  streams 
from  the  southern  valleys  of  the  Pamirs  are,  save 
in  one  or  two  important  instances,  flood-water  and 
dependent  upon  the  break-up  of  the  snows  and  ice. 
The  most  important  exception  is  the  Bartang,  which 

82 


THE    NORTHERN    BORDER 

is  known  as  Murghab,  Ak-tash,  and  Ak-su.  This 
river  is  certainly  the  longest  tributary  of  the  Panja 
in  Roshan  district.  In  the  course  of  its  descent 
from  Lake  Chakmaktin  it  receives  no  less  than  eight 
tributaries,  three  of  which  approach  it  from  the  north 
—  the  remaining  five  rising  in  small,  separate  streams 
in  the  hilly  ground  to  the  south.  The  Bartang  is 
not  the  only  river  of  importance  which  unites  with 
the  Panja  after  the  main  stream  has  swung  out  from 
the  Wakhan  Valley  towards  the  north.  Two  others, 
respectively  the  Ghund  Daria  and  the  Shakh  Daria, 
join  their  waters  at  Sazan  Bulak,  flowing  from  that 
point  under  the  name  of  Suchan  Daria  to  a  junction 
with  the  Panja.  The  waters  of  the  Suchan  Daria 
and  the  Panja  meet  at  Charog,  which  lies  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Panja  somewhat  south  and  east 
of  Kala  Bar  Panja.  This  place,  situated  on  the  left 
bank,  is  the  capital  of  Shignan. 

Communications  through  Wakhan  and  Gharan 
still  preserve  their  primitive  character;  but  between 
Kala  Panja  and  Kala  Bar  Panja,  on  the  Afghan  side 
of  the  river,  there  is  a  serviceable  track  which,  if 
more  a  bridle  path  than  suited  for  the  requirements 
of  wheeled  traffic,  is  none  the  less  superior  to  any- 
thing existing  between  these  points  on  the  Russian 
bank.  The  Russians  have  not  troubled  to  make  a 
clearance  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  their  princi- 
pal objective  having  been  to  connect  their  military 
depots  in  the  Pamirs  with  the  principal  fords  of  the 
Upper  Oxus  and  to  provide  first-class  communica- 
tions between  their  Pamir  posts  and  their  bases  in 

83 


AFGHANISTAN 

Turkestan.  The  Afghan  hne  of  communications  on 
the  banks  of  the  river  proceeds  from  the  energy 
and  precautions  taken  by  Abdur  Rahman.  Although 
no  longer  preserved  with  the  same  care,  it  neverthe- 
less offers  to  the  Afghan  patrols  a  convenient  road 
by  which  the  frontier  may  be  inspected.  At  many 
points  along  this  riverside  paths  have  been  cleared 
of  boulders,  streams  have  been  bridged,  and  ramps 
have  been  constructed  to  facilitate  the  passage  of 
the  more  troublesome  spurs.  Difficulties  of  move- 
ment must  beset  the  traveller  in  Wakhan  at  all 
times,  as  progress  through  the  valleys  is  dependent 
on  the  season.  During  the  melting  of  the  snows, 
which  begins  in  May,  the  rivers  which  draw  their 
waters  from  the  mountain  system  of  the  Hindoo 
Kush  or  from  the  Pamirs  are  in  flood,  the  period  of 
flood-water  prevailing  until  the  end  of  August.  From 
September  to  March  it  is  usually  possible  to  proceed 
along  the  banks ;  but,  so  soon  as  the  snow  begins  to 
break  up,  the  Panja,  in  its  higher  no  less  than  in  its 
middle  reaches,  becomes  so  swollen  that  the  great 
volume  of  water  passing  through  the  channel  breaks 
its  bounds  and  inundates  the  valley.  At  such  a 
time  wide  detours  over  the  mountains  have  to  be 
made;  from  the  end  of  October  the  streams  freeze 
and  it  becomes  possible  to  use  their  frozen  surfaces. 
Certain  difficulties  attend  this  practice,  as  the  rapid- 
ity of  the  current  interferes  with  the  formation  of 
the  ice. 

The  passage  through  the  river  valleys,  particu- 
larly in  the  higher  reaches  along  the  Russian  border, 

84 


THE    NORTHERN    BORDER 

is  always  arduous.  It  is  better  to  secure  permission 
to  go  round  than  to  endure  the  labour  of  clambering 
up  the  many  steep  mountain  slopes  where  there  is 
no  path  to  guide  one  and  very  little  foothold.  It 
is  practically  useless  to  take  animal  transport,  and 
coolies  lightly  laden  are  more  reliable  a  means  of 
effecting  the  journey.  Beyond  Ishkashim,  as  far 
as  the  junction  of  the  Suchan  Daria  with  the  Panja, 
a  distance  of  50  miles,  the  river  valley  is  so  broken 
and  complex  that  the  road,  where  it  exists  at  all, 
becomes  a  mere  zigzag,  half-a-dozen  inches  in  breadth. 
Rugged  and  lofty,  it  is  barely  perceptible  on  the 
granite  face  of  the  mountain.  Frequently,  no  bet- 
ter footing  than  the  surface  roughness  of  the  rocks 
presents  itself,  Nature  appearing  to  have  gone  out 
of  her  way  in  order  to  raise  obstacles  against  the 
passing  of  the  wayfarer.  i 

At  the  junction  of  the  Suchan  Daria  with  the 
Panja,  where  the  valley  widens,  there  is  no  longer 
confusion  about  the  name  of  the  stream.  It  is  now 
the  Panja  or  Ab-i-Panja,  and  until  meeting  with  the 
Bartang-Murghab-Ak-su-Ak-tash  at  Kala  Wamar 
the  valley  preserves  its  open  character.  Beyond  the 
Bartang  its  dimensions  contract  once  more  and 
the  river  tears  a  way  for  itself  through  mountain 
gorges.  At  Kala  Khum  it  bends  to  the  west  and, 
striking  a  little  south  and  then  a  little  north-west, 
runs  at  right  angles  to  the  general  trend  of  the  moun- 
tains towards  the  more  open  valleys  about  Kulab. 
Kala  Khum  may  be  said  to  mark  the  most  northerly 
point  of  the  river.     The  district  surrounding  it  is  in 

85 


AFGHANISTAN 

distinct  contrast  with  the  desolation  of  the  valleys 
along  the  Upper  Oxus.  The  cliffs  are  no  less  bold 
and  the  precipices  no  less  sheer  than  in  Gharan  and 
Wakhan;  but  owing  to  the  mildness  of  the  climate 
of  Darwaz  a  genial  warmth  permeates  the  region, 
encouraging  a  generous  growth  of  vegetation.  The 
wild  vine,  the  red  pomegranate,  the  apple,  pear,  and 
mulberry  flourish  and  many  varieties  of  vegetables 
are  freely  cultivated. 

From  the  point  where  the  Bokharan  province  of 
Kulab  becomes  separated  by  the  Oxus  River  from 
the  Afghan  districts  of  Rustak  and  Kataghan,  the 
channel  of  the  stream  is  contained  no  longer  by 
the  walls  of  the  mountains.  Broad  streams,  from  the 
Trans-Alai  Range  in  one  direction  and  the  highlands 
of  Karategin  in  another,  join  the  Oxus,  the  main 
river  at  once  beginning  to  adopt  an  uncertain  chan- 
nel. Numerous  feeders  appear  on  both  banks  at  this 
part  of  its  course.  The  Kulab  and  Surkhab-Waksh- 
Ejzil-su  join  it  in  broad  muddy  streams  from  the 
Karategin  uplands,  until  the  river,  changing  its  char- 
acter altogether,  divides  itself  into  many  channels 
where  the  hills  fail  to  confine  it.  In  addition  to 
the  two  tributaries  just  mentioned  as  appearing 
on  the  right  bank,  there  are  three  others,  the  Kafir- 
nahan,  the  Surkhan,  and  the  Darban.  These  are 
contributed  from  Bokhara;  while,  on  the  left  bank, 
Badakshan  dismisses  the  Kokcha  and  the  Kunduz- 
Ghori-IQianabad-Aksarai  to  a  meeting  with  the  main 
stream.  In  earlier  times,  when  there  were  fewer 
settlements  and  the  demand  for  purposes  of  irriga- 

86 


THE    NORTHERN    BORDER 

tion  was  not  so  great,  the  Amu  Daria  possessed, 
both  on  the  north  and  on  the  south,  other  tributaries, 
the  waters  of  which  are  now  entirely  diverted  to  the 
fields.  In  these  middle  as  also  in  the  upper  reaches 
of  the  river  but  little  of  the  main  stream  is  util- 
ised by  villagers,  the  inhabitants  of  the  settle- 
ments in  the  valleys  threaded  by  the  Oxus  supply- 
ing their  agricultural  necessities  from  the  smaller 
streams.  West  of  Kunduz,  for  a  distance  of  nearly  700 
miles,  the  drainage  of  the  hills  to  the  south  of  the 
river  is  lost  in  the  plains  of  Afghan  Turkestan;  but 
on  the  Bokharan  side  the  extensive  canalisation, 
which  is  such  a  prominent  feature,  causes  many  of 
the  streams  to  be  exhausted  before  they  have  had 
opportunity  to  effect  a  junction  with  the  Amu  Daria. 
It  is  not  until  near  Pitniak  that  any  important  diver- 
sion of  the  waters  of  the  Oxus  for  cultivation  is  made. 
At  that  point  the  great  division  of  the  stream  for 
the  requirements  of  the  Khivan  oasis  occurs,  a  gen- 
eral discharge  of  125,000  cubic  feet  per  second  being 
deflected  in  order  to  supply  a  system  of  canals  by 
which  over  4000  square  miles  of  fertile  alluvial  land 
are  kept  in  tillage. 

The  bed  of  the  Oxus  in  its  lower  reaches  is  muddy. 
Taking  the  course  of  the  river  as  a  whole,  measure- 
ments which  have  been  made  at  a  series  of  points 
demonstrate  that  there  are  no  less  than  16,000,000 
tons  of  sedimentary  matter  constantly  passing  down 
to  form  the  vast  delta  that  distinguishes  its  mouth,  as 
well  as  to  fertilise  its  banks  or  any  areas  which,  from 
time  to  time,  may  be  submerged.     It  is  unnecessary 

87 


AFGHANISTAN 

to  mention  all  the  various  channels  through  which, 
below  the  fortress  of  Nukus,  the  stream  Jflows.  The 
principal  are  the  Ulkan  Daria,  the  Taldik,  and 
the  Yani  Su.  These  present  the  usual  features  of 
a  delta;  but  the  triangular  space  contained  within 
the  Yani  Su  and  the  Taldik,  its  extreme  eastern  and 
western  channels,  is  not  a  true  delta,  since  it  consists 
of  an  original  formation  through  which  the  river  has 
cut  its  way  to  the  Aral  Sea,  and  upon  which  other 
matter  has  been  deposited.  Actual  deltas,  however, 
have  been  developed  about  the  mouths  of  the  Taldik 
and  Yani  Su,  their  existence  constituting  a  bar  to 
vessels  drawing  over  four  feet  of  water. 

The  tendency  of  the  Oxus,  like  that  of  the  great 
Siberian  rivers,  is  to  press  continually  on  its  right 
or  east  bank.  The  consequence  of  this  deflection, 
which  is  due  to  the  rotation  of  the  earth  round  its 
axis  from  west  to  east,  is  that  the  stream  has  turned 
from  the  Kungrad  channel  eastwards  to  the  Taldik 
channel  and  thence  to  the  Yani  Su  which,  at  present, 
is  receiving  the  main  discharge.  In  former  times  a 
far  greater  deviation  took  place.  No  less  than  twice 
durmg  its  history  has  the  Oxus  oscillated  between 
the  Caspian  and  the  Aral  Seas.  In  the  time  of  Strabo 
it  w^as  a  sort  of  eastern  continuation  of  the  Kura 
route  from  Georgia  across  the  Caspian  and  the  Kara 
Kum  to  Charjui.  Its  course  across  the  desert  is 
indicated  by  the  Igdy  and  other  wells  dotted  over 
the  plains  in  a  line  with  its  former  bed,  which  reached 
the  Caspian  in  the  depression  between  the  Great 
and  Little  Balkan  Hills.     Later  on  Edrisi  found  the 

88 


THE    NORTHERN    BORDER 

Oxus  flowing  into  the  Aral.  But  in  the  fourteenth 
century  it  was  flowing  into  the  Caspian  —  this  time 
along  the  Uzboi  channel.  The  bed  ran  from  near 
Nukus  westwards  to  the  Sara  Kamish  steppe  and 
thence  southwards  to  the  Igdy  wells,  along  the  orig- 
inal course  between  the  Balkans  to  the  Caspian, 
close  to  Mikhailovsk. 

The  navigation  of  the  Oxus  has  been  the  subject 
of  constant  inquiry  from  the  time  when,  in  1875, 
the  steamer  Petrovski,  drawing  three  and  a  half  feet 
of  water,  picked  a  passage  for  itself  as  far  as  Nukus. 
Three  years  later  another  steamer,  the  Samarkand, 
with  a  draught  of  three  feet  and  of  twenty -four  horse- 
power, made  the  journey  from  Petro  Alexandrovsk 
to  Kelif.  Between  1878  and  1880  further  attempts 
were  made  to  demonstrate  the  navigability  of  this 
water-way;  but  between  1880  and  1887  there  was 
so  much  conflict  of  opinion  that  matters  scarcely 
advanced  beyond  the  experimental  stage.  At  that 
date  the  increasing  importance  of  the  interests  of 
Russia  along  the  Afghan  border  made  evident  the 
advisability  of  improving  all  possible  lines  of  com- 
numication  with  it.  With  this  end  in  view,  the  Rus- 
sian Government  equipped  a  small  fleet  of  steamers 
for  river  service  and  the  navigation  of  the  Oxus 
to-day  is  controlled  by  these  vessels,  which  are 
described  as  the  Government  Amu  Daria  Flotilla. 
Between  Patta  Hissar  on  the  middle  reaches  and 
Khiva,  Petro  Alexandrovsk,  and  Kungrad  on  the 
lower  reaches,  these  craft  conduct  a  regular  shipping 
business,  Farab  and  Charjui  acting  as  the  central 

89 


AFGHANISTAN 

depot  to  the  service  —  Farab  holding  the  head- 
quarters of  the  company  and  Charjui  being  the  prin- 
cipal anchorage. 

From  Patta  Hissar  to  Charjui  the  journey  occu- 
pies between  seven  and  ten  daj^s,  dependent  upon 
the  size  of  the  steamer  and  the  character  of  the  voy- 
age. Sand  banks  are  a  perpetual  menace  to  rapid 
navigation,  and  the  length  of  time  varies  according 
to  the  immunity  of  the  undertaking  from  mishap. 
From  Charjui  to  Kungrad  the  same  amount  of  time 
is  usually  required. 

The  boats  are  of  old  construction  and  only  number 
five  in  all.  They  are  supplemented  by  a  fleet  of 
barges  of  large  and  small  capacity,  the  larger  class 
carrying  12,000  poods,  the  smaller,  of  which  there 
are  two  divisions,  carrying  5000  poods  and  3000 
poods  each. 

The  two  principal  steamers,  respectively  the  Tsar 
and  Tsaritsa,  were  the  first  to  be  launched  and  date 
back  to  1887.  The  three  others,  wdiich  are  slower, 
smaller,  and  more  akin  to  river  tugs  than  passen- 
ger craft,  are  the  Samarkand,  Bokhara,  and  Kabul. 
Their  cost  was  borne  by  the  Government  and  ran 
into  several  thousand  pounds  apiece.  All  the  ves- 
sels are  paddle-boats  and  flat-bottomed.  The  tw^o 
larger  ships  are  supposed  to  be  able  to  make  16 
knots  per  hour;  their  length  is  150  feet,  with  23  feet 
beam,  and  engines  of  500  horse-power. 

Their  draught,  when  laden,  is  rather  less  than 
3  feet,  while  they  carry  a  crew  of  30  hands  and  pos- 
sess accommodation  for  300  men  and  20  oflficers. 

90 


THE    NORTHERN    BORDER 

They  take  any  class  of  cargo  and  passengers  and 
are  also  utilised  for  towing  the  freight  barges  of  the 
military  authorities  up  stream  to  the  frontier  sta- 
tions at  Karki,  Kelif,  Patta  Hissar,  and  Termes. 
Navigation  between  Patta  Hissar  and  Charjui  con- 
tinues throughout  the  year  unless  prevented  by  the 
freezing  of  the  river;  between  Charjui  and  Kungrad 
the  continuity  of  the  down-river  service  is  depen- 
dent upon  the  sand  banks,  their  sudden  appearance 
and  constant  change  of  position  quite  upsetting  the 
ordinary  schedule. 

From  April  1  to  October  1  the  steamers  leave 
Charjui  twice  a  week  —  on  Wednesdays  for  Karki 
and  on  Sundays  for  Patta  Hissar.  During  the  re- 
mainder of  the  year  they  leave  once  a  week,  on 
Sundays,  for  Patta  Hissar.  On  the  journey  from 
Patta  Hissar  to  Karki,  during  the  summer,  steamers 
leave  on  Saturdays  and  in  the  winter  months  on 
Thursdays;  for  the  journey  from  Karki  to  Patta 
Hissar  steamers  leave  in  the  summer  months  on 
Wednesdays  and  in  the  winter  months  on  Fridays. 
From  Patta  Hissar  to  Charjui  steamers  run  every 
Friday  and  Sunday  in  summer  and  during  the  winter 
on  Sundays. 

In  general,  navigation  on  the  lower  Oxus  is  diffi- 
cult. Above  Charjui  the  swiftness  of  the  current, 
which  averages  five  miles  and,  in  some  places,  even 
six  miles  an  hour,  impedes  the  up-stream  progress 
of  any  but  the  more  powerful  boats.  Unfortunately 
the  narrowness  of  the  channel  above  Charjui  and 
its  extreme  tortuousness  make  the  employment  of 

91 


AFGHANISTAN 

steamers  of  a  class  that  would  be  really  serviceable 
against  so  strong  a  current  quite  unsuitable.  Again, 
the  constant  shifting  of  the  proper  channel  in  the 
lower  reaches,  the  liability  of  the  river  to  sudden 
rises  between  April  and  August  and  the  irregular 
falls  between  August  and  October  —  sometimes  mak- 
ing within  a  few  hours  a  difference  of  eight  feet 
in  the  level  of  the  stream  —  create  a  further  obsta- 
cle against  the  successful  organisation  of  a  purely 
commercial  service.  The  difficulty  is  much  greater 
down  stream  where  obstructions  to  navigation,  owing 
to  the  diminution  of  the  current  as  the  surface  of 
the  stream  increases,  are  more  frequent. 

In  this  respect  it  is  interesting  to  study  the  fall 
of  the  river  from  Kelif  to  Charjui,  and  from  that 
point  to  the  mouth.  According  to  the  Russian  reck- 
oning, between  these  two  points,  a  distance  of  200 
miles,  there  is  a  fall  of  220  feet.^ 

From  Charjui  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  there  is  a 
fall  of  only  167  feet  in  a  distance  of  500  miles.  If 
the  fall  in  the  river  between  Patta  Hissar  and  Charjui 
be  compared  with  the  width  of  the  stream,  the  diffi- 
culty presented  to  navigation  through  the  current 
will  be  understood.  There  is  a  breadth  at  Kelif  of 
540  yards  which  increases  to  650  yards  at  Charjui 
during  the  normal  flow  of  the  river;  but  for  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  bank  the  stream  is 
shallow,  possessing  a  bare  depth  of  3  feet  with  an 
average  of  10  feet  in  the  centre.  At  the  time  of 
flood  these  dimensions  become  greatly  increased  and 

*  "Russian  Central  Asia."    H.  Lansdell. 

92 


THE    NORTHERN    BORDER 

the  Oxus  from  Farab  to  its  mouth  is  an  imposing 
spectacle.  In  places  it  is  fully  a  mile  in  width  and 
a  very  general  measurement  is  1000  metres.  The 
flood  channel  is  usually  three-fourths  wider  than 
the  ordinary  stream;  in  the  extremely  broad  places 
the  average  strength  of  the  current  per  hour  is  4 
miles,  falling  as  low  as  2 J  miles  per  hour  when  the 
flood  has  subsided.  The  water  passing  down  is  in  the 
desert  stretches  of  a  yellow  hue.  In  those  portions 
w^here  rocks  take  the  place  of  sand  it  shows  a  grey 
tone,  imparted  by  the  masses  of  granite,  sand,  and 
mica  which  are  held  in  suspension.  In  spite  of 
its  curious  colouring  the  water  is  used  extensively 
for  drinking  purposes  without  apparent  ill  effect. 
In  taste  it  is  slightly  saline,  but  it  does  not  possess 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  salt  to  prevent  freezing. 
The  temperature  of  the  river  in  midsummer  is  73°. 
In  winter  the  stream  above  Kunduz  freezes  regularly, 
the  frozen  surface  becoming  a  passageway  between 
the  banks.  Below  Khiva  a  similar  physical  condition 
prevails,  caravans  crossing  the  ice  without  risk.  At 
Charjui  the  river  freezes  over  from  bank  to  bank, 
but  it  is  only  at  rare  seasons  that  the  ice  is  of  suffi- 
cient solidarity  to  support  general  traffic.  At  Karki 
the  surface  of  the  river  coats  over,  but  the  ice  itself 
is  unsubstantial;  at  Kelif,  where  numerous  floes 
appear  in  the  stream,  the  force  of  the  current  is  suffi- 
cient to  prevent  any  general  formation  of  ice. 

The  banks  of  the  river  about  Kelif,  for  a  distance 
of  fifty  miles  above  the  ferry  and  particularly  on  the 
right  bank,  reveal  considerable  agricultural  activity. 

93 


AFGHANISTAN 

Further  along  the  left  bank  of  the  lower  Oxus  there 
is  a  zone,  five  miles  in  width,  in  which  cultivation 
has  been  extensively  practised.  Wheat  and  barley, 
the  spreading  willow,  and  the  luscious  mulberry- 
tree  grow  in  profusion,  imparting  to  the  scene  an 
appearance  of  prosperity  in  odd  contrast  with  the 
dreary  expanses  distinguishing  so  much  of  the  coun- 
try through  which  the  river  courses.  Irrigation  is 
widely  employed;  water  is  drawn  from  the  Oxus  in 
long  canals,  the  heads  of  which  are  constantly  being 
destroyed  by  flood  and  renew^ed  again  as  rapidly. 
The  scene  in  these  attenuated  strips  of  cultivation 
is  bright  and  there  is  a  happy  note  of  industry  and 
peace.  Small  villages,  the  houses  neatly  built  of 
stone,  stand  scattered  about  the  landscape;  single, 
substantial,  and  very  comfortable-looking  home- 
steads are  numerous.  Where  cultivation  ceases, 
too,  there  is  usually  a  narrow  tract  of  jungle  be- 
tween the  reeds  of  the  river-bed  and  the  edge  of  the 
desert,  where  admirable  cover  exists  for  wild  animals 
and  birds. 

The  passage  of  the  stream  by  the  steamers  of  the 
Oxus  flotilla  is  made  only  during  daylight.  From 
Charjui,  where  there  are  excellent  facilities,  the  hour 
of  departure  is  eight  o'clock.  If  overtaken  by  dark- 
ness between  the  stages  the  vessels  tie  up  to  the  bank, 
resuming  the  journey  at  daw^n.  In  calm  weather 
an  average  daily  passage  is  fifty  miles,  although 
down  stream  a  better  run  is  generally  recorded.  In 
the  event  of  arriving  in  advance  of  the  scheduled 
time,  the  hour  of  departure  is  left  to  the  discretion 

94 


THE    NORTHERN    BORDER 

of  the  captain.  Regular  halts  are  arranged  at  Patta 
Hissar,  where  the  steamers  stay  four  hours,  and  at 
Karki  where,  on  the  voyage  to  Patta  Hissar,  four 
hours  are  also  spent.  This  interval  is  reduced  to 
two  hours  on  the  return  journey  and  also  at  Char- 
jui;  but  elsewhere  it  is  a  matter  of  uncertainty,  the 
duration  of  the  stop  merely  being  governed  by  the 
time  occupied  in  loading  and  unloading  the  barges. 
Steamers,  as  a  rule,  start  punctually,  particularly  at 
Charjui,  the  vessels  leaving  their  moorings  accord- 
ing to  Askhabad  time.  This  is  the  standard  on  the 
Central  Asian  Railway. 

The  custom  of  granting  passages  at  reduced  rates 
to  all  and  sundry  associated  with  the  Government, 
observed  throughout  the  railway  systems  of  Russia, 
is  adopted  on  the  steamers  of  the  Oxus  flotilla. 
There  are  three  classes  of  tariffs  and  two  standards 
of  accommodation: 

(1)  Officers  and  doctors  travelling  on  duty. 

(2)  Children  between  the  ages  of  five  and  ten 
years. 

(3)  Non-commissioned  officers,  soldiers,  emigrants 
with  families,  and  prisoners. 

These  are  all  carried  at  a  reduction  of  fifty  per 
cent.  Soldiers  are  compelled  to  show  a  warrant 
attested  by  the  authority  for  the  transport  of  troops 
by  water,  emigrants  a  permit  signed  by  the  local 
civil  authority,  and  the  guard  in  charge  of  prisoners 
an  order  from  the  local  police  bureau  before  being 
supplied  with  tickets.  All  passengers  are  entitled 
to  one  pood  of  baggage,  free  of  charge;  but  for  the 

95 


AFGHANISTAN 

unloading  and  reloading  of  baggage  or  of  cargo,  pas- 
sengers must  pay  at  the  rate  of  one  and  a  half  kopecks 
per  pood ;  for  the  hire  of  boats  for  the  transportation 
of  such  baggage  to  the  steamer  or  from  the  steamer 
to  the  shore  at  the  rate  of  one  kopeck  per  pood. 
Animals  of  a  domestic  description,  such  as  sheep, 
camels,  horses,  cattle,  and  dogs,  bales  of  merchandise, 
and  timber  are  carried  by  special  arrangement  and 
under  a  special  tariff.  This  can  be  supplied  on 
demand  at  the  chief  bureau  of  the  flotilla  at  Charjui 
and  Farab,  at  the  principal  goods  office  of  the  com- 
pany at  Karki,  by  the  captains  of  steamers  and  the 
mates  of  barges.  Steamers  are  permitted  to  tow 
private  vessels  of  any  description  at  the  rate  of  half 
a  kopeck  per  ton  of  their  displacement  in  addi- 
tion to  whatever  other  charges  may  be  contracted. 

The  accommodation  is  divided  between  the  first 
and  third  classes,  the  cabins  being  at  the  disposal 
of  the  first-class  passengers.  Restrictions  are  not 
placed  on  the  movements  of  native  passengers  who, 
if  they  dared  to  pay  for  a  cabin,  would  be  permitted 
to  berth  in  the  first  saloon.  Meals  are  supplied  on 
board  by  arrangement  with  the  purser;  biit,  while 
there  is  no  material  difficulty  attaching  to  the  journey 
up  and  down  the  river,  permission  to  travel  by  these 
steamers  is  very  rarely  accorded  to  foreigners. 

For  the  better  comprehension  of  the  terms  which 
have  been  mentioned  the  following  table  is  given: 

1  ton  =  62  poods 
1  pood  =  36  lbs. 
1  rouble  =  2  shillings 
100  kopecks  =  1  rouble 

96 


THE    NORTHERN    BORDER 

In  addition  to  the  steamers  of  the  flotilla  there  are 
380  native-owned  craft  engaged  in  trading  along  the 
lower  and  middle  reaches  of  the  stream.  These 
vessels  conduct  a  very  flourishing  trade  in  various 
native  commodities  —  fruit,  vegetables,  wood,  live 
stock,  cotton  goods,  and  such  minor  manufactures 
as  may  be  required  among  the  native  villages.  The 
boats  used  in  this  traffic  are  of  rough  native  work- 
manship, capacious  and  damp,  but  in  their  way 
serviceable  enough. 

Their  dimensions  are: 

LENGTH  BEAM  DEPTH 

50  feet  18  feet  4  feet 

Each  boat  can  accommodate  150  passengers,  20 
mounted  men,  and  stow  20  tons  of  cargo  —  an 
estimate  which  strains  their  capacity  to  its  utmost 
limit.  In  design  these  craft,  flat-bottomed,  with  a 
draught  of  18  inches  and  2 J  feet  of  gunwale  above 
the  water,  are  constructed  of  square  logs  of  willow  or 
mulberry,  6  feet  in  length,  peeled,  clipped  into  shape, 
and  clamped  together  with  iron  pins.  The  craft 
trade  principally  on  the  lower  reaches  of  the  river, 
although  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  them,  save  the 
difficulty  of  the  task,  from  venturing  further  up 
stream.  In  this  respect  a  few  of  the  better  class 
do  manage  to  reach  Patta  Hissar,  w^hence  large 
floats  of  timber  are  despatched  to  Charjui.  The 
existence  of  this  trade  at  Patta  Hissar  is  character- 
istic of  the  middle  reaches  of  the  stream,  where 
white  poplar,  willows,  and  mulberry  trees  grow  in 
profusion.     The  presence  of  the  timber  encourages 

97 


AFGHANISTAN 

native  shipping  to  tie  up  to  the  trees,  the  several 
little  colonies  of  vessels  thus  laid  up  imparting  to 
the  appearance  of  the  river  an  amount  of  life  and 
animation  not  always  borne  out  by  actual  traffic. 

The  contrivances  used  by  ferries  on  the  Oxus  are 
in  a  measure  identical  with  those  which  may  be 
noticed  on  the  Murghab  and  along  the  Helmund. 
Neither  rafts  nor  inflated  skins  are  in  any  favour  on 
the  low^er  reaches,  although  skins  are  employed  by 
natives  in  the  region  of  the  Upper  Oxus,  this  method 
constituting  the  sole  means  by  which  a  passage  of 
the  river  is  effected.  On  the  middle  and  lower 
reaches  there  are  rough  boats,  similar  in  design  to 
the  trading  craft  but  somewhat  smaller  in  dimension. 
Rafts  are  requisitioned  only  for  the  transportation 
of  firew^ood. 

Above  Charjui,  as  far  as  a  little  east  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Kunduz  River,  a  distance  of  nearly  300  miles, 
there  are  fifteen  ferries,  four  of  which  have  been 
abandoned.  Below  Charjui,  from  that  point  as  far 
as  Petro  Alexandrovsk,  there  are  nine. 

These  ferries  are  provided  with  two  boats,  sta- 
tioned one  on  either  side  of  the  river.  The  passage 
is  accomplished  by  punting  or  through  the  services 
of  small  horses  trained  to  tow  the  boat  while  swim- 
ming and  attached  by  means  of  a  surcingle  to  an 
outrigger  w^hich  projects  beyond  the  gunwale.  Native 
shipping  relies  principally  on  man-haulage  up  stream, 
supplemented  by  constant  poling;  down  stream  the 
boats  drift  with  the  current. 

It  is  characteristic  of  a  large  portion  of  the  river 

98 


THE    NORTHERN    BORDER 

that  the  stream  flows  within  double  banks.  The 
inner  one  is  the  Hne  of  the  water  at  ordinary  seasons, 
while  the  outer  one  is  the  limit  of  the  river  in  flood. 
The  distance  between  the  banks  is  as  much  as  two 
miles  in  many  places  and  the  zone  thus  formed 
is  laid  out  in  fields  and  gardens.  Moreover,  it 
rarely  happens  that  this  interior  space  is  altogether 
inundated  and  a  portion,  therefore,  is  cultivated  per- 
manently. Elsewhere  the  area  available  for  devel- 
opment is  measured  by  the  flood  season.  Where 
these  intra-spaces  occur  considerable  length  is  added 
to  the  ferry  passage.  Sometimes  the  river  forms  a 
series  of  separate  channels  until  its  waters  have 
united  beyond  the  interruption.  Such  a  point  is 
met  with  at  Khwaja  Sala,  where  in  certain  seasons 
the  stream  is  divided  into  three  branches,  the  width 
of  each  channel  being  295  yards,  113  yards,  and 
415  yards.  The  average  depth  there  is  9  feet.  At 
Kelif,  33  miles  up  stream,  on  the  other  hand,  these 
double  banks  do  not  appear,  the  river  flowing  in 
a  single  and  very  narrow  bed  ^  The  Kelif  ferry  is 
of  interest  as  a  link  in  the  affairs  of  Central  Asia. 
It  was  the  point  where  Alexander  crossed  the  Oxus 
in  B.C.  330;  while  to-day  it  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant Customs  stations  on  the  Russo-Afghan  border. 
At  every  ferry  station  small  posts  of  observation, 
formed  of  Bokharan  levies,  have  been  established. 
During  the  prevalence  of  plague  in  India  and  cholera 
in  Afghanistan  and  Persia  orders  were  issued  which 
closed  all  ferries  against  the  passage  of  caravans  and 
travellers.     Only  at  Charjui  and  Karki  was  traflSe 

99 


AFGHANISTAN 

permitted.  Lately  there  has  been  some  relaxation 
in  the  execution  of  these  regulations;  but  a  number 
of  the  minor  ferries  are  still  barred  against  any  de- 
scription of  communication  from  Afghanistan,  India, 
and  Persia. 

The  river  does  not  continue  for  many  miles  in  the 
turbulent  spirit  that  distinguishes  its  appearance  at 
Kelif ;  at  Karki,  a  few  miles  to  the  west,  on  account 
of  a  second  channel  there  is  greater  width.  At 
Charjui  the  ferry  is  nearly  700  yards  across  at  low 
water,  with  several  branches  formed  by  sand  banks. 
At  the  time  of  flood  this  distance  becomes  double 
with  a  depth  of  30  feet  in  mid-stream;  the  further 
dimensions  of  the  river  down  stream  corresponding 
in  proportion  with  the  level  of  the  banks. 


100 


CHAPTER  VIII 

TEE  MURGHAB  VALLEY  RAILWAY 

THE  Russian  Government  has  shown  remark- 
able energy  during  the  past  few  years  in 
improving  its  railway  communications  in 
Central  Asian  regions.  After  the  Trans-Caspian  line 
had  been  finished  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  Samar- 
kand there  was  a  lull  in  construction,  but  presently 
an  extension  was  carried  on  to  Tashkent  and  thence 
to  Andijan.  By  creating  railway  communication 
with  Merv,  Russia  met  half-way  the  difficulties  of 
her  station  in  Trans-Caspia.  In  the  event  of  any 
military  crisis  arising  with  Afghanistan,  300  versts  of 
difficult  country  yet  remained  to  be  crossed  before 
concentration  upon  that  frontier  could  be  effected. 
At  a  later  date  a  branch  was  run  from  Merv  to 
Pendjeh,  by  which  this  hiatus  was  at  once  repaired 
and  Russia  secured  to  herself  a  position  of  command- 
ing importance  across  the  road  to  Herat. 

Surveys,  carried  out  in  the  year  1894  in  two  direc- 
tions, from  the  station  of  Tejend  and  from  Merv, 
demonstrated  that  the  Merv-Murghab  route  did  not 
present  any  technical  difficulties.  Shorter  than  the 
Tejend  line  by  65  versts  and  more  level,  it  trav- 
ersed the  well-populated  Merv,  Yulatan,  and  Pendjeh 

101 


AFGHANISTAN 

oases.  Water  was  also  plentiful.  On  the  other  hand 
the  line  from  Tejend  crossed  very  difficult  country; 
while  it  doubled  the  distance,  necessitating  700,000 
cubic  sagenes  additional  excavation.  Perhaps  a 
more  emphatic  objection  arose  from  the  inadequacy 
of  water  between  Tejend  and  Sarakhs,  supplies  in 
the  Tejend  district  drying  up  between  September 
and  January.  As  a  consequence  the  line  was  con- 
structed from  Merv  to  Kushkinski  Post,  on  the 
Afghan  frontier,  through  the  valleys  of  the  Murghab 
and  Kushk  Rivers,  just  over  293  versts  or  192  miles 
in  length,  with  a  terminal  depot  only  80  miles  dis- 
tant from  Herat.  From  motives  of  economy  one 
station  was  allowed  to  every  50  versts,  with  sidings 
half-way  between  them;  only  two  engine  sheds  and 
w^orkshops  were  provided,  while  all  other  buildings 
were  limited  and  none  but  the  cheapest  materials 
employed.  Bridges  were  made  of  wood  instead  of 
stone,  the  rolling-stock  sufficing  for  four  trains  in 
the  twenty -four  hours.  Railway  and  military  tele- 
graph wires  were  fixed  to  the  same  posts  and  it  was 
not  intended  to  ballast  the  permanent  way.  Con- 
struction was  reduced  by  these  precautions  to  8,408,- 
000  roubles.  After  revision  by  a  commission  of  the 
General  Staff  this  sum  w^as  increased  by  the  cost  of 
ballasting  the  permanent  way,  329,000  roubles;  the 
total  expenditure  upon  the  work  finally  amounting 
to  9,669,000  roubles  or  33,000  roubles  per  verst. 

Imperial  ukase  authorised  construction  on  Au- 
gust 26,  1896,  actual  work  beginning  on  April  27, 
1897. 

102 


MURGHAB    VALLEY    RAILWAY 

Colonel  Ulyanin,  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  was 
appointed  Chief  Constructor  and  the  overseers  were 
also  engineer  officers,  the  majority  of  whom  had 
already  taken  part  in  the  laying  of  the  Krasnovodsk- 
Merv  section  of  the  Trans-Caspian  Railway.  The 
workmen  consisted  of  Russians,  Persians,  Bokharans, 
Sarts  from  the  province  of  Samarkand,  Ersaris  and 
Afghans  from  Maimana,  the  daily  roll  averaging 
between  3500  and  5000.  Of  this  number  from  27  per 
cent,  to  45  per  cent,  were  Russians,  who  were  paid 
from  89  kopecks  to  1  rouble  80  kopecks  per  day. 
Native  workmen  received  no  more  than  80  kopecks 
daily;  several  hundred  of  them  worked  for  a  monthly 
salary  of  between  15  and  17  roubles.  The  preva- 
lence of  malaria  in  the  Kushk  and  Murghab  Valleys 
interrupted  the  building  and  hundreds  of  instances 
of  labourers  breaking  their  contracts  occurred,  the 
authorities  being  obliged  to  repair  the  shortage  by 
enlisting  inexperienced  men.  In  spite  of  this  diffi- 
culty work  upon  the  permanent  way  was  completed 
in  November,  1898,  and  the  task  of  laying  the  rails, 
which  began  on  November  15,  1897,  was  finished  on 
December  4,  1898.  Rails  were  laid  at  a  rate  varying 
between  one  and  two  and  one-half  versts  per  day, 
the  job  being  carried  out  by  the  newly  formed  com- 
panies of  the  Railway  Battalion.  The  cost  per 
verst  fluctuated  from  350  to  450  roubles.  The  dif- 
ference existing  between  the  gauge  of  this  railway 
and  the  standard  of  the  Russian  railways  has  since 
been  altered.  At  first  the  line  was  of  narrow  gauge 
with  rails  weighing  18  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot, 

103 


AFGHANISTAN 

metals  of  a  heavier  type  only  being  laid  for  a  dis- 
tance of  40  versts.  The  service  of  trains  from  Merv 
to  Kushkinski  was  opened  on  December  4,  1898.  At 
the  present  time  it  comprises  four  daily  local  trains 
and  two  bi-weekly  expresses,  "through"  trains,  which 
complete  the  journey  in  eighteen  hours  at  a  speed  of 
eleven  miles  an  hour. 

Upon  completion  and  after  inspection  by  a  com- 
mission, control  of  the  Murghab  Valley  line  reverted 
to  the  jNIinister  of  Ways  and  Communications  by 
whom  the  original  narrow  gauge  was  adapted  to  the 
broad  gauge  of  the  Russian  system.  Various  other 
alterations  and  improvements  in  the  siding  and  hut- 
ting accommodation  were  also  carried  out.  In  1901- 
1902  branch  lines  to  Chahil  Dukteran  and  Tanur 
Sangi,  skirting  the  left  bank  of  the  Murghab  and 
passing  Maruchak  on  the  Afghan  bank,  were  con- 
structed. It  is  now  proposed  to  double  the  entire 
track  between  Merv  and  Kushkinski  Post,  these 
highly  significant  changes  making  the  railway  avail- 
able for  any  service  the  military  authorities  might 
impose  upon  it.  The  line  itself  is  veiled  in  such 
close  secrecy  by  the  Russian  authorities  that  pecu- 
liar interest  attaches  to  any  particulars  upon  it,  and 
these  notes,  presented  for  the  first  time  to  the  pub- 
lic, convey  an  accurate  and  not  unimportant  descrip- 
tion of  its  character,  from  the  junction  at  Merv  to 
the  terminus  at  Chahil  Dukteran. 

From  Merv  station,  118.01  sagenes  above  sea- 
level,  the  railway  runs  at  first  in  a  south-easterly 
direction,  passing  due  south  and  south-west  along 

104 


MURGHAB    VALLEY   RAILWAY 

the  valleys  of  the  Murghab  and  Kushk  Rivers.     The 
first  station  beyond  Merv  is  Talkhatan  Baba,  some 
37  versts  distant  at  an  elevation  of  127.06  sagenes. 
This  place  is  situated  in  country  which  is  both  sandy 
and  flat,  while  barely  6  versts  away  is  the  Murghab 
River,  upon  which  the  station  is  dependent  for  its 
water-supply.     Twenty  versts  farther  the  line  meets 
the  spreading  prosperity  of  the  Yulatan  oasis,  from 
which  the  point  derives  its  name.     Yulatan  station 
stands  at  a  height  of  134.16  sagenes;  and,  although 
a  pleasant  freshness  is  imparted  by  the  oasis  to  its 
environment,  the  general  spectacle  is  very  dreary, 
being  broken  only  by  the  contours  of  low  dunes  and 
undulating  sand  ridges.     A  small  village  has  been 
founded  by  the  Russians  on  the  banks  of  the  stream, 
the  first  colonists  to  establish  themselves  in  Yulatan 
appearing  in  1885.     An  open  square,  surrounded  by 
little   brick   and  stone  buildings,  distinguishes   the 
centre  of  the  settlement.     Four  wide  streets,  along 
the  gutters  of  which  are  planted  tall  trees,  radiate 
from  it;  while  the  population  consists  principally  of 
Persians,  Khivans,  Sarts,  Armenians,  and  Bokharan 
Jews.    The  percentage  of  Russians  is  inconsiderable. 
Yulatan  contains  the  headquarters  of  the  District 
Commissioner,  the  Sixth  Company  of  the  1st  Trans- 
Caspian  Railway  Battalion,  and  two  companies  of  the 
1st  Caucasian  Rifle  Battalion.     There  are  also  a  post 
and  telegraph  oflSce,  a  mixed  primary  school,  a  hos- 
pital with  six  beds,  a  synagogue,  and  a  large  public 
garden.     The  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  Bokharan  Jews 
and  the  market  assembles  upon  Mondays  and  Thurs- 

105 


AFGHANISTAN 

days.  In  the  district  around  the  station  there  is  a 
Tekke  popidation  of  15,000,  occupied,  for  the  most 
part,  in  the  cotton  industry.  By  reason  of  its  trade 
this  station  is  the  most  important  commercial  centre 
on  the  Hne,  the  bulk  of  the  trade  from  the  Yulatan 
oasis  line  now  converging  upon  this  point. 

The  third  station  from  Merv  is  Sultan-i-band, 
some  76  versts  distant  and  at  an  altitude  of  139.55 
sagenes.  A  slight  change  in  the  character  of  the 
country  is  here  noticeable;  the  flat,  sandy,  barren 
expanse  which  begins  wherever  the  Yulatan  oasis 
leaves  off  giving  place  to  dense  reeds  and  marshes. 
Water  is  not  draw^n  from  the  Murghab  River  at 
this  station,  the  supply  coming  from  the  Khani  Yab 
Canal.  Originally  the  region  was  fertilised  by  the 
Sultan-i-band;  but  that  once  magnificent  work  has 
fallen  into  decay,  and,  although  the  surrounding 
country  contains  a  large  Tekke  population,  there  is 
very  little  industry.  The  ruins  of  the  Sultan-i-band 
lie  in  the  immediate  vicinity  —  the  word  "band" 
means  "dam"  —  this  famous  canal  once  being  con- 
nected very  closely  with  the  history  of  Old  Merv 
when  the  w^aters  of  the  Murghab  irrigated  that  oasis. 
But  to-day  the  commercial  importance  of  the  district 
is  insignificant  and  in  the  year  under  review  only 
3689  poods  of  cotton  were  forw^arded  to  Merv. 

The  environment  of  the  next  station,  Imam  Baba, 
which  is  44  versts  distant,  reveals  on  account  of 
the  prevalence  of  malaria  a  very  desolate  appear- 
ance. It  is  situated  where  the  sand-hills  approach 
the  banks  of  the  Murghab  River,  but  the  spot  is 

106 


MURGHAB    VALLEY    RAILWAY 

desert  and  marshy.  It  rests  148.60  sagenes  above 
the  sea,  drawing  its  water  from  the  Murghab  River. 
There  is  Httle  local  industry  and  the  district,  owing  to 
the  fever,  is  very  scantily  populated. 

The  fifth  station  from  Merv  is  Sari  Yazi,  where  a 
small  buffet  denotes  its  importance.  The  mean  gra- 
dient of  the  line  between  Merv  and  this  point  is 
0.0005  and  the  distance  is  157  versts.  The  depot  is 
situated  in  the  Murghab  Valley,  bounded  on  the  east 
by  the  Karabyl  Hills,  a  low-lying  ridge  of  sandy  clay. 
It  lies  155,57  sagenes  high  and  depends  for  its  water 
upon  the  Murghab  River.  Sari  Yazi  occupies  an 
interesting  region  and  is  itself  the  site  of  an  impor- 
tant Turkoman  fortress,  now  in  ruins.  Among  the 
valleys  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Karabyl  Hills 
there  are  the  traces  of  numerous  Tekke  villages, 
whose  men  held  the  region  in  subjection  while  the 
women  cultivated  the  ground.  At  the  station  there 
are  railway  yards  and  workshops;  attached  to  it  is 
a  hospital  with  fifteen  beds  and  barracks  for  one 
company  of  the  Railway  Battalion. 

Tash  Kepri,  the  sixth  station  from  Merv  and  197 
versts  from  that  place,  is  situated  in  the  broad  val- 
ley of  the  Murghab  River  at  its  confluence  with  the 
Kushk  River.  It  is  at  a  height  of  164.0  sagenes  and 
the  water-supply  is  from  the  Murghab  River.  The 
place  derives  its  name  from  a  handsome  old  brick 
bridge  of  nine  arches,  which  spans  the  Kushk  River 
at  a  distance  of  three-quarters  of  a  mile  to  the  south- 
west of  Ak  Tepe  and  connects  the  station  with  the 
village.     It  is  also  described  as  Pul-i-Khisti.     The 

107 


AFGHANISTAN 

Karabyl  Hills,  which  bound  the  valley  of  the  Mur- 
ghab  on  the  east,  here  recede  somewhat  from  the 
river  and  there  is  a  vestige  of  cultivation,  the  green 
plots  imparting  a  welcome  note  of  relief  to  the  gen- 
eral aspect  of  the  scene.  Close  to  the  station  is  a 
monument  to  the  soldiers  who  fell  during  the  expedi- 
tion of  1885,  which  was  commanded  by  Lieutenant- 
General  Komaroff .  Among  the  trophies  of  the  fight 
were  eight  guns  and  the  w^hole  of  the  Afghan  camp. 
The  monument  was  erected  at  the  instance  of  the 
late  Commander  of  the  Forces  in  the  Trans-Caspian 
Province,  Lieutenant-General  Kuropatkin,  by  those 
who  took  part  in  the  fight  together  with  the  troops 
in  garrison  in  the  district.  The  commercial  develop- 
ment of  the  Tash  Kepri  district  is  growing  and,  con- 
formably with  the  increase  of  trade  w^ith  Afghanistan, 
the  station  itself  is  becoming  of  greater  importance. 
Almost  upon  the  frontier  and  connected  with  it  by 
a  carriage-road  22  versts  in  length,  is  Takhta  Bazaar, 
the  headquarters  of  the  Harzagi  section  of  the  Pend- 
jeh  Sariks  who  control  the  Kashan  Valley  cultiva- 
tion. It  is  situated  on  the  Murghab  River  and  is 
the  only  settlement  of  importance  in  the  Pendjeh 
district.  The  population  comprises  Jews,  Persians, 
Bokharans,  Armenians,  Kliivans,  Russians,  Afghans, 
and  Tartars.  There  are,  including  a  native  school 
under  Russian  supervision,  57  buildings  in  the  vil- 
lage, of  which  at  least  one-half  belong  to  the  Jews. 
The  Pendjeh  Custom  House,  a  frontier  establish- 
ment of  the  third  class  through  which  passes  the 
trade  with  Afghanistan,  is  situated  near  it. 

108 


MURGHAB    VALLEY    RAILWAY 

From  Pendjeh  the  main  line,  taking  a  south- 
westerly direction,  runs  through  the  narrow  valley 
of  the  Kushk  River  to  Kushkinski  Post.  Since  the 
completion  of  this  work  a  branch  line  has  been  car- 
ried through  from  Tash  Kepri  a  distance  of  22  versts 
along  the  Murghab  to  Tanur  Sangi,  affording  a 
supplementary  avenue  of  approach  for  the  pur- 
poses of  concentration  and  the  transport  of  stores  to 
points  on  the  actual  Russo-Afghan  frontier.  From 
this  extension  a  further  line,  25  versts  in  length, 
has  been  projected  towards  Torashekh  from  a  little 
south-east  of  Pendjeh  up  the  Kashan  Valley.  Ten 
miles  south-east  of  Tanur  Sangi,  at  Bala  Murghab, 
and  30  miles  south  of  Torashekh,  at  Kala  Nao,  the 
Afghans  possess  strong  frontier  posts.  Herat  already 
lay  so  snugly  in  the  grasp  of  Russia  that  it  might 
have  been  spared  this  little  further  attention. 

Kala-i-Mor,  the  station  before  Kushkinski  Post, 
is  situated  almost  mid-way  between  Pendjeh  and  the 
terminus  at  Kushk.  It  is  244  versts  from  Merv  and 
202  sagenes  above  sea-level.  The  position  of  the 
station,  bounded  by  hills  where  wild  boars  are  plen- 
tiful and  snipe  and  pheasants  offer  attractive  sport, 
occupies  a  dreary  and  desolate  scene.  There  is  little 
vegetation  and  considerable  malaria;  the  local  springs 
are  quite  brackish  as  the  result  of  extensive  deposits 
of  salt  in  the  sand.  Fresh  water  is  brought  by  train 
to  the  station  where  a  drinking-water  reservoir  has 
been  established.  No  trade  exists  at  Kala-i-Mor, 
which  fails  to  attract  a  population. 

Beyond  Kala-i-Mor,  at  a  distance  of  259  versts 

109 


AFGHANISTAN 

from  IMcrv,  the  line  crosses  the  Kushk  River  by  a 
bridge  with  stone  abutments  supported  upon  iron 
piles.  Half-way  to  Kushkinski  Post  station,  near 
the  railway  siding,  are  the  ruins  of  the  small  fortress 
of  Chemen-i-Bed.  While  approaching  it  the  line 
passes  the  Alexeieffski  village,  established  by  Rus- 
sian colonists  in  1892  and  containing  forty-one  fam- 
ilies. This  village  and  the  neighbouring  one  of 
Poltavski,  founded  in  1896  and  where  there  are 
thirty-five  families,  are  the  most  southern  settle- 
ments within  the  Russian  Empire.  The  inhabitants 
exist  almost  entirely  by  the  exportation  of  inconsid- 
erable quantities  of  wheat,  hay,  and  straw  to  Kush- 
kinski Post  for  the  purposes  of  the  garrison. 

Kushkinski  Post  station,  306.4  sagenes  above  sea- 
level,  is  293  versts  from  Merv.  It  possesses  a  fine 
buffet.  The  military  post,  situated  near  the  frontier 
in  the  broad  valley  of  the  Kushk  River,  is  bounded 
by  the  undulating  slopes  of  the  Bend  Chengurek 
chain,  an  offshoot  of  the  Paropamisus.  With  the 
completion  of  the  Murghab  Railway,  Kushkinski 
Post  immediately  attained  special  importance,  and 
in  1900  it  was  declared  a  fortress  of  the  fourth  rank. 
The  hoisting  of  the  Imperial  standard  over  the  walls 
was  carried  out  in  the  presence  of  the  late  Minister 
of  War,  General  Kuropatkin.  In  the  early  days, 
before  the  lines  of  the  fortress  had  been  planned, 
Kushkinski  Post  comprised  a  number  of  detached 
w^orks  within  which  the  various  arms  were  quartered. 
At  that  time,  too,  the  officers'  accommodation,  con- 
sisting of  one-storey  buildings  roughly  constructed 

110 


MURGHAB    VALLEY    RAILWAY 

out  of  mud,  was  in  the  railway  settlement  where, 
pending  the  completion  of  the  main  works,  long 
narrow  sheds  for  the  use  of  the  troops  had  been 
erected.  Now  improvement  has  followed  upon  pre- 
liminary chaos  and  the  men  are  comfortably  housed 
in  cool  barracks  upon  the  upper  slopes  of  the  adjacent 
heights.  The  officers  are  disposed,  with  equal  care 
and  convenience,  elsewhere.  Public  buildings  like- 
wise have  improved  upon  their  original  sites.  The 
military  hospital,  the  post  and  telegraph  bureau,  and 
the  Custom  House  have  taken  up  locations  upon  high 
ground,  their  positions  crowned,  if  not  protected,  by 
forts  upon  the  crest  of  these  very  useful  eminences. 
Kushkinski  Post,  therefore,  may  be  said  to  be  a 
thriving  settlement  where,  if  the  hours  are  weari- 
some and  the  days  charged  with  ennuiy  there  is 
always  the  prospect  of  a  "dust  up." 

Attempts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time,  by 
officers  stationed  at  Kushkinski  Post,  to  become 
familiar  with  the  officers  in  command  of  the  Afghan 
posts  across  the  frontier.  More  often  these  attempts 
at  friendliness  have  been  rebuffed,  the  Afghan  sol- 
diery neither  accepting  advances  from  the  Russians 
nor  making  any  overtures  themselves.  Strained 
relations  exist,  as  a  rule,  between  military  posts  on 
either  side  of  any  frontier,  although,  in  regard  to 
the  Russo-Afghan  frontier,  there  was  an  occasion 
when  friendly  conditions  prevailed  between  the  Rus- 
sians and  the  Afghans.  At  that  time  the  staff  of 
the  frontier  regiment  on  guard  along  the  Afghan  side 
of  the  border  had  accepted  an  invitation  to  mess  at 

111 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  Russian  post.  They  arrived  in  due  course  — 
appearing  in  all  the  full-dress  grandeur  of  second- 
hand railway  uniforms!  The  oflScer  commanding 
the  detachment  exhibited  on  the  collar  of  his  tunic 
the  mystic  words  "Ticket  Collector";  his  subordi- 
nate, a  subaltern,  w^as  content  with  the  less  exalted 
label  of  "Guard."  Out  of  courtesy  to  their  guests 
the  Russians  suppressed  their  merriment,  receiving 
nevertheless  the  impression  that  a  portion  of  the 
subsidy,  granted  by  the  Government  of  India  to  the 
Amir  of  Afghanistan,  was  taken  out  in  the  cast-off 
uniforms  of  British  public  companies.  The  facts 
were  that  the  Amir,  through  his  agent  in  India,  had 
acquired  a  large  parcel  of  discarded  clothing  at  one 
of  the  annual  sales  of  condemned  stores  in  Northern 
India. 

This  exchange  of  courtesies  on  the  frontier  illus- 
trates only  the  pleasant  side  of  service  in  this  region. 
More  serious  incidents  occur.  Occasionally  in  the 
heat  of  the  chase,  when  parties  of  Russian  officers 
have  crossed  the  frontier  in  pursuit  of  their  quarry, 
they  have  been  fired  upon  by  the  Afghan  patrols 
or  ridden  down  by  Afghan  sowars.  Sporting  trips 
around  Kushkinski  Post  or  in  the  valleys  of  the  Mur- 
ghab  are  infrequent  among  the  Russians,  although 
wild  boar  abound  in  the  thick  patches  of  reeds  which 
hem  in  the  banks  of  the  rivers;  the  tufts  of  grass,  the 
hardy  scrub,  and  the  patches  of  bush  also  afford 
excellent  cover  for  partridges  and  pheasants.  The 
scarcity  of  good  water  at  any  distance  from  the  rail- 
way is  the  great  drawback  to  such  excursions,  since 

112 


MURGHAB    VALLEY    RAILWAY 

the  transport  of  water  is  both  costly  and  cumber- 
some. In  cantonments  goat-skins  of  the  precious 
fluid  are  brought  for  sale  by  water-sellers  who 
come  round,  earning  a  precarious  hvelihood  by  their 
industry.  •  : 

This  custom,  which  prevails  throughout  the  East, 
was  once  turned  to  account  by  an  Afghan  who  was 
afterwards  discovered  to  be  an  Hazara  sapper  from 
the  Kabul  garrison.  Disguised  as  a  water-seller,  he 
spent  three  weeks  at  Kushkinski  Post  conducting 
an  exhaustive  inspection  of  the  works  and  coming 
every  night  and  morning  to  the  fort  with  his  supplies 
of  water.  Chance,  which  in  Asia  plays  no  less  a  part 
in  the  affairs  of  man  than  in  Europe,  threw  across  his 
path  a  native  who  had  visited  Kabul  some  weeks 
before  with  letters  from  the  Governor-General  of 
Turkestan.  The  Afghan  had  been  deputed  by  the 
Amir  to  attend  to  the  Turkestani.  He  had  met  and 
escorted  him  to  the  capital  and  back  again  to  the 
western  boundary.  As  the  Russian  had  entered 
Afghanistan  from  the  Kushkinsld  Post  along  the  Ilari 
Rud  Valley,  he  was  conducted  from  the  capital  to 
the  frontier  by  the  route  he  had  first  followed.  At 
the  frontier  he  had  dismissed  his  Afghan  attendant, 
who  promptly  proceeded  to  disguise  himself  as  a 
water-carrier  and  to  obtain  admission  to  the  station. 
Here  he  busied  himself  daily  until,  meeting  of  a 
sudden  his  late  charge,  recognition  upon  the  part  of 
the  Russian  subject  was  immediate  and  the  spy  was 
arrested  in  the  act  of  escaping  from  the  precincts  of 
the  fort.     Suspicion  as  to  the  man's  identity  became 

113 


AFGHANISTAN 

assured  when  a  packet  of  notes  was  found,  wrapped 
in  a  rubber  sheath,  at  the  bottom  of  the  goat-skin 
water-bag. 

Until  the  advent  of  the  railway  the  colony  at 
Kushkinski  Post,  apart  from  the  garrison,  comprised 
a  few  Armenian  and  Persian  traders.  With  the  pro- 
longation of  the  line  from  Merv  the  civilian  popula- 
tion began  to  increase  rapidly.  There  is,  of  course, 
no  hotel  in  the  station;  although  the  officers  of 
the  garrison  have  established  a  small  military  club 
wherein  they  mess  together  and  w^here,  when  the 
bi-weekly  trains  bring  the  supply  of  ice,  there  is 
usually  an  animated  gathering  of  desolated  human- 
ity. At  the  present  time  there  are  in  Kushkinski 
Post  123  buildings,  of  which  some  30  odd  belong  to 
private  persons.  Apart  from  the  garrison  the  civil 
population  numbers  50  people. 

Kushkinski  Post  station  consists  of  a  handsome, 
spacious  structure  in  the  white  stone  which  is  brought 
from  quarries  in  the  basin  of  the  Kushk.  The  rail- 
way buildings  include  a  depot  wdth  w^orkshops,  eight 
bungalows  for  the  heads  of  the  staff  and  special  quar- 
ters for  the  employees.  There  are  also  large  barracks 
for  the  6th  Company  of  the  1st  Trans-Caspian  Rail- 
way Battalion,  who  are  not  included  in  the  field 
state  of  the  post.  All  buildings  are  lighted  by  elec- 
tricity and  the  workshops  are  furnished  with  electric 
motors,  while  the  water  is  drawn  from  springs  on 
Gumesli  Mountain. 

Kushk  region  is  malarial  in  consequence  of  the 
marshy   nature   of   the   surrounding   country.     For 

114 


MURGHAB    VALLEY    RAILWAY 

some  years  past  measures  have  been  undertaken  with 
a  view  to  draining  the  swamps  and  regulating  the 
running  of  the  streams.  By  these  means  it  has  been 
hoped  to  render  more  healthful  the  general  environ- 
ment of  the  station,  including  the  fortress  works, 
Kushkinski  village,  and  the  district  lying  between  the 
Afghan  frontier  post  of  Kara  Teppe  and  the  Russian 
Alexeieffski  and  Poltavski  villages. 

The  specific  disease  which  makes  duty  in  the  Mur- 
ghab  and  Kushk  Valleys  peculiarly  obnoxious  is  a 
low  fever  of  an  endemic  nature.  Its  pathological 
history  is  still  undetermined  and,  although  investiga- 
tions have  been  made  into  its  character  and  numer- 
ous experiments  essayed,  the  malady  is  usually  fatal. 
In  general,  the  patient  is  stricken  suddenly  when  the 
liver  would  appear  immediately  to  be  affected,  the 
skin  becoming  yellow  and  the  sufferer  lapsing  into 
unconsciousness  within  a  few  hours  of  the  attack. 
Systematic  study  of  the  disease  has  enabled  the  med- 
ical authorities  to  trace  it  indirectly  to  the  soil  from 
which,  just  as  in  Africa  and  any  of  the  countries  lying 
within  the  fever  belts,  germs  are  released  whenever 
it  is  disturbed.  In  this  way  the  most  infectious 
points  in  the  Kushk  and  Murghab  Valleys  are  those 
lying  within  the  cultivated  areas,  more  especially 
around  those  places  where  digging  operations  are  of 
frequent  occurrence.  As  the  order  of  life  becomes 
more  settled  and  the  necessity  for  any  interference 
with  the  soil  disappears,  it  is  anticipated  that  the 
extreme  virulence  of  the  disease  may  diminish.  At 
one  time  the  soldiers  of  the  Railway  Battalions  were 

115 


AFGHANISTAN 

so  susceptible  to  its  ravages  that  its  course  assumed 
the  appearance  of  an  epidemic. 

No  commercial  importance  belongs  to  Kushkin- 
ski  Post  and  it  is  solely  the  strategic  considerations 
which  attach  to  it  that  give  it  so  much  value.  In 
the  hands  of  Russia  and  commanding  the  trade  routes 
into  Afghanistan,  as  well  as  the  road  to  Herat,  Kush- 
kinski  Post  well  might  play  a  leading  part  in  the 
settlement  of  questions  still  outstanding  between 
Russia  and  Great  Britain  in  respect  of  Afghanistan. 
Whether  the  existence  of  the  post  will  promote  the 
development  of  trade  relations,  which  are  now  re- 
stricted by  the  Amir's  Government  and  directed  by 
the  Afghan  frontier  authorities  through  Khorassan, 
remains  to  be  seen.  Nothing  can  underestimate 
its  significance.  The  post,  together  with  the  whole 
of  this  branch  line,  is  a  deliberate  military  measure 
against  Afghanistan,  the  boundaries  of  which  king- 
dom can  almost  be  seen  from  the  ramparts  of  the 
forts  which  crown  the  crest  of  the  hills. 

Eighteen  versts  to  the  south  of  the  fortress,  at 
Chahil  Dukteran,  there  are  the  post  of  the  Russian 
Frontier  Guard  and  the  present  terminus  of  the  Mur- 
ghab  Valley  Railway.  Beyond  may  be  noted  the  sol- 
itary figures  of  the  Russian  sentinels  keeping  their 
beat  along  the  extensive  line  of  their  position;  while 
southward  and  serving  at  the  moment  for  a  caravan 
route  lies  the  road  to  Herat.  As  an  interesting  link 
in  the  chain  of  evidence  which  points  to  the  future 
use  of  this  road  in  another  way,  there  is  the  existence 
of  a  large  store  of  light  railway  plant  prepared  for 

116 


MURGHAB    VALLEY     RAILWAY 

the  purposes  of  extending  it  into  Afghanistan  itself, 
whenever  the  troops  of  Russia  may  require  to  be 
carried  forward  to  the  walls  of  Herat  through  the 
passes  of  the  Paropamisus,  a  little  less  than  80 
miles. 

To  Englishmen  another,  perhaps  less  direct  and 
more  fictitious,  interest  attaches  to  this  railway.  A 
glance  at  the  map  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere  will 
show  that  the  shortest  practicable  line  of  communi- 
cation between  London  and  India  lies  through  Rus- 
sia and  across  Central  Asia.  The  direction  would  be 
via  Calais,  Berlin,  Warsaw,  Rostov-on-Don,  Petrov- 
ski,  Baku,  Krasnovodsk,  Merv,  Kushkinski,  Girishk, 
and  Kandahar.  The  whole  of  this  distance  has  now 
been  covered  by  railway,  with  the  exception  of  the 
span  of  195  miles  across  the  Caspian  Sea,  between 
Baku  and  Krasnovodsk  and  the  gap  of  500  miles 
which  still  separates  Kushkinski  Post  from  New 
Chaman.  If  these  sections  were  bridged,  the  jour- 
ney from  London  to  India  might  be  very  consider- 
ably shortened,  assuming  that  the  present  rate  of 
speed  —  32  miles  an  hour  on  the  European  and  25 
on  the  Asiatic  lines  —  were  maintained.  The  net 
saving  in  time,  if  the  railway  were  completed,  would 
be  seven  days;  while  the  horrors  of  the  Red  Sea 
and  the  monsoon  would  be  but  bad  dreams  to  the 
Anglo-Indian  traveller.  The  country  between  Kush- 
kinski Post  and  New  Chaman  presents  no  obstacle 
to  the  engineer;  the  Paropamisus  Range  could  be 
crossed  by  the  Ardewan  or  the  Chashma  Sabz  Pass, 
neither  of  which  is  more  than  3400  feet  above  sea- 

117 


AFGHANISTAN 

level  or  1000  feet  higher  than  that  of  the  table-land 
on  either  side.  From  this  point  Herat,  the  garden 
city  of  Afghanistan  and  the  key  of  India,  is  distant 
only  30  miles;  thence  the  line  would  be  carried  by 
way  of  Sabzawar,  Farah,  Girishk,  and  Kandahar  to 
New  Chaman. 

However,  if  further  railway  construction  in  this 
region  is  to  take  place,  it  will  be  in  connection  with 
the  development  of  plans  which  concern  the  require- 
ments of  potential  strategy  rather  than  the  humours 
of  experimental  fantasies.  For  some  time  past  there 
have  been  abundant  signs  that  Russia  is  proposing 
to  find  compensation  in  the  Middle  East  for  the 
downfall  of  her  prestige  in  Farther  Asia.  Certainly 
there  is  a  field  for  her  energies  lying  fallow  in  Central 
Asia.  The  precise  quarter  where  the  furrows  are 
waiting  to  be  ploughed  is  betw^een  the  Central  Asian 
Railway  and  the  frontiers  of  Northern  Persia  and 
Northern  Afghanistan.  It  is  to-day  evident  that 
sooner  or  later  Russia  will  improve  her  communi- 
cations in  this  direction  by  adding  to  the  Oren- 
burg-Tashkent system  its  natural  complement  —  an 
extension  to  Termes  on  the  Oxus,  where  there  is  a 
Russian  fortress  —  or  by  imparting  to  her  position 
on  the  Perso- Afghan  border  that  little  requisite  atten- 
tion which  it  merits  —  a  railway  to  Meshed  in  Kho- 
rassan.  Long  since  is  it  that  these  schemes  entered 
the  domain  of  practical  pohtics,  the  Russian  military 
position  on  the  Middle  Oxus  requiring  an  alterna- 
tive line  of  communications  to  that  offered  by  the 
Amu  Daria,  which,  when  frozen  in  winter  with  the 

118 


MURGHAB    VALLEY    RAILWAY 

post-roads  across  the  mountains  blocked  by  snow, 
wraps  in  dangerous  isolation  the  Russian  garrisons 
at  Termes,  Kelif,  and  elsewhere  along  this  section  of 
the  frontier.  Preliminary  surveys  for  a  railway  were 
conducted  in  1902,  when  the  routes  selected  followed 
from  Samarkand  the  Shar-i-Sabz,  Huzar,  Shirabad 
caravan  highway  to  Termes;  and,  from  Farab  to 
Termes,  the  trade  route  along  the  Oxus  through  Bur- 
dalik  and  Kelif.  Further  extensions  in  this  direc- 
tion would  provide  railway  communication  between 
Huzar  and  Karki  by  a  bridge  across  the  river,  by 
which  Huzar  would  become  as  important  a  railway 
junction  as  it  is  a  caravan  and  trading  centre.  Still 
more  in  the  future  is  the  strong  probability  that 
Karki  will  be  joined  with  the  Afghan  frontier  at 
Imam  Nasar  by  following  the  caravan  route  from 
the  river,  or  with  Pendjeh  across  the  fringe  of  the 
Kara  Kum. 

Equally  determined  has  been  the  intention  to 
open  up  railway  communication  with  the  north- 
eastern frontier  of  Persia,  the  original  surveys 
taking  place  simultaneously  with  the  parties  work- 
ing towards  the  Oxus.  For  purposes  of  the  Persian 
railway,  two  routes  were  also  inspected  in  this  quar- 
ter, the  Askhabad-Meshed  line  receiving  the  earliest 
attention  and  warmest  support.  This  scheme,  after 
passing  through  the  defiles  between  Firuza,  the  sum- 
mer resort  of  Askhabad  society,  and  Badjira,  entered 
Persian  territory  at  Kettechinar;  running  up  the 
Deregez  Valley  and  leaving  the  Atrek  waters  near 
their  source  at  Kuchan,  it  then  broke  into  the  Keshef 

119 


AFGHANISTAN 

Riid  Valley,  striking  the  caravan  road  to  Meshed 
between  Durbadam  and  Imam  Kuli.  Great  initial 
outlay  was  made  in  connection  with  this  railway. 
Its  course  had  been  pegged  out  under  the  supervi- 
sion of  M.  Stroieff,  dragoman  of  the  Russian  Consu- 
late at  Meshed,  with  the  help  of  the  Ikram-ul-Mul, 
late  Karguzar  of  Kuchan,  to  whom  12,000  roubles 
were  presented.  Further,  it  was  arranged  to  open 
a  branch  of  the  Imperial  Russian  Bank  at  Meshed  to 
assist  the  financing  of  the  work,  the  staff  comprising 
an  ofiicial  from  St.  Petersburg  as  manager-in-chief, 
an  assistant  manager  from  Teheran,  with  Ali  Askar 
Khan,  the  interpreter  of  the  State  Bank  at  Askhabad. 
The  outbreak  of  hostilities  in  Manchuria  imposed  a 
temporary  check  upon  the  labours  of  the  construc- 
tion parties,  the  reflection  thus  obtained  giving  rise 
to  the  advantage  of  dropping  a  branch  line  from 
Tejend  station  on  the  Central  Asian  railway  via 
Sarakhs,  Daulatabad,  Pul-i-Khatun  to  between  Zul- 
filkar  and  Kala  Kafir,  wherever  some  future  exten- 
sion of  the  Askhabad-Meshed  line,  following  the 
Keshef  Rud  to  its  meeting  with  the  Hari  Rud  on 
the  actual  Perso-Afghan  frontier,  may  terminate. 
The  Tejend  Rud  is  the  name  given  to  the  lower 
waters  of  the  Hari  Rud  which,  flowing  by  Herat, 
receives  midway  in  its  course  the  Keshef  Rud  and 
thence  runs  close  to  Sarakhs,  presenting  to  any  line 
running  along  the  Hari  Rud  Valley  an  alternative 
approach  to  the  Afghan  city. 

That  Herat  and   Meshed   are  the  objectives  of 
Russian  railway  policy  is  obvious  from  a  pamphlet 

120 


MURGHAB    VALLEY    RAILWAY 

issued  in  1902  by  the  Topographical  Bureau  in  St. 
Petersburg  and  entitled  Railways  Across  Persia.  In 
its  pages  a  railway  was  projected  from  Kara  Kliss,  a 
station  midway  between  Tiflis  and  Erivan,  via  Tabriz, 
Teheran,  Shahrud,  to  Meshed.  The  mileage,  cost, 
the  number  of  sidings,  and  names  of  stations  were  all 
laid  down.  The  principal  stations  in  the  first  sec- 
tion —  Kara  Kliss  to  Tabriz  —  were  Erivan  and 
Julfa.  At  this  moment  the  span  from  Kara  Kliss  to 
Julfa,  a  distance  of  135  miles,  is  completed,  the  first 
hundred  miles  —  Kara  Kliss  to  Erivan  —  being  open 
to  traffic  and  the  remaining  35  miles  —  Erivan  to 
Julfa  —  in  working  order.  From  Julfa  a  carriage- 
way, constructed  under  Russian  auspices  and  in  all 
essentials  a  Russian  military  road,  runs  to  Tabriz, 
so  that  Russian  schemes  for  broad  gauge  railways  to 
Herat  and  Meshed  are  at  least  removed  from  their 
incipient  obscurity. 


121 


CHAPTER  IX 

TEE   MURGHAB    VALLEY 

THE  river  Murghab,  which,  with  the  Kashan 
and  the  Kushk  streams,  waters  the  Merv 
oasis  and  then  disappears  in  the  sands  of  the 
Kara  Kum  desert,  rises  in  the  mass  of  mountains 
connecting  the  eastern  extremities  of  the  Safed  Koh 
and  Tir  Band-i  Turkestan  Ranges.  It  flows  in  a 
westerly  direction  through  the  great  valley  separating 
these  mountain  chains  and,  after  receiving  the  waters 
of  numerous  tributaries,  turns  towards  the  north- 
west to  pass  the  Afghan  fortress  of  Bala  Murghab 
and  the  post  of  Karawal  Khana.  At  this  latter 
point  it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Kaisar  affluent. 
Continuing  in  a  north-westerly  direction  it  flows  past 
Maruchak,  lying  on  the  right  bank,  where  a  short 
distance  below  it  is  joined  by  the  Kashan  stream. 
Pendjeh  and  Ak  Tepe  are  both  situated  upon  the 
left  bank.  At  Ak  Tepe  the  Kushk  River,  which 
rises  in  the  Paropamisus  Range,  unites  with  it  and 
from  this  point  the  INIurghab  runs  in  a  due  northerly 
direction  past  Yulatan  to  Merv,  thence  running  dry 
in  the  desert. 

Within  Russian  territory  the  Murghab  River  irri- 
gates exclusively  the  Merv  district,  and  its  length 

122 


THE    MURGHAB    VALLEY 

within  the  Trans-Caspian  Province  is  about  400 
versts.  If  its  numerous  bends  were  taken  into  ac- 
count the  length  of  the  stream  would  be  850  versts. 
The  Kushk  River  waters  Russian  territory  for  a 
distance  of  100  versts,  from  the  Russo- Afghan  fron- 
tier to  its  confluence  with  the  Murghab;  the  Kashan 
for  60  versts.  The  width  of  the  Murghab  at  the 
Kaushut-Khan-Band,  28  versts  above  the  town  of 
Merv,  is  about  23  sagenes;  but  at  Merv  itself  it 
narrows  to  12  sagenes.  Its  mean  depth  is  7  feet. 
The  rise  of  the  water  begins  in  the  middle  of  March 
and  the  fall  finishes  three  months  later.  Between 
June  and  the  middle  of  October  the  level  of  the 
river  is  determined  by  the  rainfall  and  snow  in 
the  neighbouring  mountains.  About  June,  when  the 
river  has  fallen,  the  population  experiences  the  want 
of  the  water  which  is  necessary  for  the  autumn  crop 
of  cotton.  In  years  of  drought,  when  the  dearth  of 
water  is  felt  much  earlier  —  during  the  period  of 
the  ripening  of  the  crops,  in  fact  —  the  population 
are  obliged  to  abandon  the  greater  portion  of  their 
harvest. 

The  country  through  which  these  rivers  flow  is, 
in  the  main,  a  mixture  of  desert  waste  and  cultivated 
strip,  with  rising  uplands  carpeted  in  spring  by 
bright  flowers  and  hidden  in  winter  by  heavy  snows. 
Roads  meander  along  the  valleys,  sometimes  by 
means  of  rocks  and  boulders  crossing  and  recrossing 
the  stream  many  times  in  short  stretches  or,  at 
others,  wandering  far  away  from  the  water-side  to 
traverse  the  broken  spurs  of  hills.     Where  signs  of 

123 


AFGHANISTAN 

cultivation  exist,  there  are  indications  that  the  pop- 
ulation has  regained  conjfidence  in  the  Russian  dom- 
ination of  the  district.  Fields  and  irrigation  canals 
have  been  cleaned  and  restored;  the  sparkle  of  the 
little  rills  is  reflected  in  the  brilliant  sunshine. 

From  the  broad  uplands  of  the  watershed,  from 
where  to  the  river  bed  below  there  is  in  general  a 
tedious  scramble  across  a  confusion  of  stones  and 
brushwood,  the  tumbled  masses  of  the  rounded 
slopes  are  seen  to  sink  into  long  undulating  sweeps. 
AYhere  the  Kushk  and  Murghab  Valleys  become 
entangled,  a  line  of  sand  cliffs  disappears  in  one 
direction  into  the  haze  of  the  Kara  Kum  and  merges 
in  another  with  the  Xarabyl  plateau.  In  the  dis- 
tance the  river,  spreading  itself  over  a  labyrinth  of 
canals,  passes  through  a  rapid  succession  of  changing 
scenes,  until,  in  the  broad  arid  wastes  of  the  Kara 
Kum,  its  waters  are  finally  and  completely  lost. 
South-west  of  Bala  Murghab  the  valley  narrows 
to  the  dimensions  and  rugged  outlines  of  a  defile. 
Through  this  the  river  rolls,  tumbling  with  thunder- 
ous clamour,  towards  Pendjeh  oasis,  where  it  acquires 
a  breadth  of  one  to  three  miles.  At  Pul-i-Khisti, 
identical  with  Tash  Kepri  and  a  little  above  the 
Russian  settlement  of  Takhta  Bazaar,  the  stream 
is  joined  by  the  waters  of  the  Kushk  rivulet,  when 
it  is  not  consumed  in  irrigation.  From  this  point 
the  united  rivers  flow  onward  to  the  oases  of  Yulatan 
and  Merv,  passing  through  a  broad  flat  valley,  two 
miles  in  width,  bounded  on  either  side  by  sandstone 
heights.     In  this  stage  the  river  is  slow  running, 

124 


THE    MURGHAB    VALLEY 

deep,  and  diflBcult  to  cross,  and  possessing  but  few 
fords.  Its  average  breadth  varies  between  40  and  70 
yards  and  the  most  prominent  feature  is  its  extreme 
sinuosity.  Beyond  Bala  Murghab  the  river  valley 
is  contained  on  the  left  bank  by  an  undulating  chain 
of  low  hills,  high  rocky  gorges  enclosing  the  right. 
At  this  point  the  sides  are  steep,  with  a  possible 
height  of  24  feet  and  a  surface  growth  of  shrubs 
and  willows.  A  narrow,  level  strip,  tufted  with  scat- 
tered grasses,  lies  between  the  water's  edge  and  the 
hills  on  the  left  bank.  The  river  itself  flows  in  a 
single  channel,  clinging  rather  closely  to  the  left  of 
the  valley.  It  possesses  a  mean  breadth  of  70 
yards  and  a  maximum  current  of  5  miles.  The 
depth  of  the  ford  is  between  3  to  4  feet. 

The  valleys  which  debouch  upon  the  river  are 
quite  spacious  and  contain  small  plots  of  cultivated 
ground,  with  here  and  there  a  village.  Unfortu- 
nately, while  the  banks  of  the  river  are  fertile  the 
valleys  themselves  are  exceedingly  unhealthf ul  —  a 
low  fever,  pathologically  identical  in  the  two  dis- 
tricts of  Murghab  and  Kushk,  permeating  them. 
Although  the  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  avow 
themselves  immune  from  the  disease,  they  are  averse 
to  settling  in  the  valleys.  A  feature  of  the  river  is 
the  abruptness  with  which  the  broad  open  spaces  are 
changed  to  narrow  gorges  of  no  remarkable  height. 
This  trait  in  the  character  of  an  otherwise  respect- 
able inland  river  compresses  so  great  a  volume  of 
water  into  so  small  a  channel  that  its  passage  is 
attended  with  risk.     It  is  not  until  the  spreading 

125 


AFGHANISTAN 

expanses  of  the  Pendjeh,  Yulatan,  and  Merv  oases 
have  exhausted  it  that  the  stream  is  crossed  with 
convenience.  At  Bala  Murghab,  where  the  current 
is  very  strong  and  the  depth  uncertain,  deep  holes 
in  the  bottom  and  masses  of  protruding  rocks,  added 
to  the  hidden  dangers  from  quicksands,  make  the 
task  of  fording  an  intricate  proceeding.  There  are 
two  fords  at  this  point,  and  a  similar  number  are 
in  use  at  Maruchak,  Karawal  Khana,  and  Pendjeh, 
while  the  Russians  have  restored  many  stone  bridges 
which  formerly  existed  in  the  Kushk  Valley  near  the 
junction  of  the  Murghab  and  Kushk  Rivers,  at  Mar- 
uchak and  Bala  Murghab.  The  liability  of  the  two 
rivers  to  sudden  floods  renders  all  fords  uncertain 
and  insecure,  particularly  in  the  lower  stretches 
between  Pendjeh  and  Merv.  More  often  than  not 
necessity  dictates  the  prudence  of  stripping  to  the 
skin,  when  the  native,  a  prayer  to  Allah  on  his  lips 
and  his  possessions  strapped  in  a  bundle  on  his  head, 
flounders  through  the  water  to  arrive  damp,  discon- 
solate, and  very  scared  on  the  opposite  side.  Never- 
theless, the  best  fords  are  found  usually  where  the 
stream  flows  swiftly  through  a  narrow  bed.  At 
such  a  crossing  there  is  a  firm  bottom,  and  foothold 
is  readily  secured. 

Many  contrivances  are  used  to  cross  the  rivers  of 
High  Asia.  Where  the  current  is  sluggish  an  inflated 
goat-skin  is  employed.  This  system  is  in  vogue  on 
the  Oxus  and,  in  lesser  degree,  on  the  Helmund, 
where  rafts  of  bushes  are  preferred.  Along  the 
Murghab  the  indifferent  nature  of  the  fords  and  the 

126 


THE    MURGHAB    VALLEY 

swiftness  of  the  current  in  the  narrow  channels  of 
the  river  make  the  use  of  a  boat,  drawn  along  a 
hawser,  more  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  occasion. 
Fords  on  the  Murghab  are  not  so  frequent  as  on  the 
Oxus. 

The  Kushk  Valley  extends  in  Russian  and  Afghan 
territory  some  14  miles.  It  possesses  an  average 
breadth  of  three-quarters  of  a  mile.  Its  hills,  low 
and  rounded,  are  a  conglomerate  of  clay  and  red 
sand,  but  bare  of  trees  and  with  their  faces  dotted 
with  mud  cabins.  An  extensive  system  of  irriga- 
tion is  fed  by  the  river  and  there  is  much  cultivation 
on  the  tops  and  sides  of  the  hills.  The  produce  of 
the  fields  is  only  sufficient  for  the  immediate  wants 
of  the  native  settlers,  although  the  Russians  hope, 
now  a  garrison  has  been  established  at  Kushkinski 
Post,  that  the  demands  of  the  troops  will  spur  the 
villagers  to  greater  agricultural  activity.  In  Afghan 
territory  the  valley  is  the  habitat  of  the  Jamshidis, 
who,  quiet  and  tractable,  reveal  few  wants  and  even 
fewer  interests.  Excessive  irrigation  has  done  so 
much  to  spread  the  fever  that  the  population  through- 
out the  valley  has  been  dwindling  gradually.  There 
are  now  less  than  4000  families  in  the  entire  valley, 
years  of  peace  and  prosperity  seeming  to  accentuate 
the  restlessness  which  underlies  the  nature  of  all 
nomadic  people.  A  weekly  bazaar  is  held  at  Kush- 
kinski Post;  similar  gatherings  taking  place  at  Afghan 
Kushk,  Bala  Murghab,  Maruchak,  and  in  the  Pend- 
jeh  oasis  at  Takhta  Bazaar.  Salt,  rice,  soap,  carpets, 
and  horses  are  all  brought  to  the  markets,  while 

127 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  Russians  encourage  the  native  merchants  under 
their  protection  to  display  stocks  of  Russian  sugar, 
matches,  and  cotton  prints.  Silks  from  Meshed  and 
Bokhara  are  also  in  evidence,  but  nothing  of  any- 
English  or  Indian  origin.  French,  American,  and 
German  products  are  barred  no  less  rigorously, 
although  German  matches  and  French  sugar  occa- 
sionally escape  the  specific  ostracism  which  applies 
to  British  manufactures. 

In  the  Kushk  Valley  the  fertility  of  the  land  is 
dependent  upon  the  flooding  of  the  river  by  the 
spring  rains.  As  a  consequence  an  ever-present 
feeling  of  irritation  exists  in  the  lower  parts  of  the 
Kushk  Valley  against  the  Afghan  villagers,  who  con- 
trol the  head  waters  of  the  river  and  divert  it  to 
their  own  fields.  This  difiiculty  prevails  along  the 
entire  line  of  the  frontier  in  this  region,  the  demarca- 
tion of  the  boundary  between  the  two  races  leaving 
the  heads  of  the  canals  in  Afghan  territory.  There 
are  many  exceptions  to  the  misfortune,  and,  so  far 
as  possible,  the  division  is  arranged  in  a  spirit  of 
mutual  ownership,  although  the  natives,  on  the 
Russian  side  of  the  frontier,  have  no  claim  to  com- 
pensation if  there  should  be  an  insuflBcient  quantity. 
With  a  river  like  the  Kusnk,  which  possesses  an  irreg- 
ular volume,  the  difficulty  is  much  greater  than  in 
the  case  of  the  Murghab  or  even  the  Hari  Rud. 
Water  means  to  these  primitive  peoples  life  and 
existence;  and,  as  cultivation  is  only  rendered  possi- 
ble by  most  assiduous  irrigation,  the  task  of  conserv- 
ing the  supply  involves  incessant  labour.     Although 

128 


^  2 


^  2 


THE    MURGHAB    VALLEY 

agricultural  activity  prevails  principally  in  the  Mur- 
ghab  and  Kushk  district  there  are  a  few  cultivated 
places  in  the  Kashan  Valley.  It  would  be  useless 
to  make  any  comparison  between  the  former  valleys 
and  the  Kashan.  The  Kashan  valley  contains  a 
small  strip,  level,  well  watered,  and  about  half  a 
mile  in  width,  through  which  percolates  a  narrow 
stream.  In  spite  of  its  culturable  soil  the  Kashan 
district  is  not  frequently  inhabited,  as  in  the  extreme 
hot  weather  the  Kashan  River  is  exhausted  by  the 
claims  made  upon  it  for  purposes  of  irrigation ;  below 
Robat-i-Kashan,  except  during  the  spring  floods, 
there  is  no  trace  of  water.  A  similar  condition  of  af- 
fairs characterises  its  companion  stream  the  Kushk; 
at  the  point  of  union  with  the  Murghab  it  is  fre- 
quently reduced  to  a  mere  trickle.  None  the  less 
during  the  spring  rains  each  of  these  rivers  is  liable 
to  sudden  floods.  Prior  to  the  advent  of  the  railway 
at  Tanur  Sangi  there  were  but  few  settlements  in 
the  valley.  There  was  one  at  Karawal  Khana  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Murghab  and  12  miles  south 
of  Maruchak,  while  the  next  of  any  consequence 
was  at  Bala  Murghab,  upon  the  same  bank  and 
more  than  20  miles  away  from  Maruchak.  At  the 
time  when  the  Anglo-Russian  Commission  was 
adjusting  the  line  of  the  Russo-Afghan  frontier  in 
this  region,  the  absence  of  habitation  and  human 
settlement  of  any  kind  was  most  marked.  Time 
has  brought  a  change.     - 

Tanur  Sangi   is  now   one  of  the  termini   of  the 
Murghab  Valley  Railway.     Barracks  for  the  troops 

129 


AFGHANISTAN 

who  are  occupying  the  post  have  been  built  on  the 
heights  of  the  valley,  the  dense  vegetation  has  been 
burnt  off,  and  a  system  of  drainage  applied  to  the 
neighbouring  swamps.  For  the  moment  the  Mar- 
uchak  district,  extending  equally  within  Russian 
and  Afghan  territory,  is  pregnant  with  prospects,  and 
the  advent  of  the  Russians  there  has  been  followed 
by  an  influx  of  native  settlers.  Upon  the  Afghan 
side  of  the  river  there  are  similar  indications,  by 
reason  of  the  arrival  of  the  levies  who  garrison  the 
Afghan  forts  at  Bala  Murghab,  Maruchak,  Kala 
Nao,  and  elsewhere. 

The  river  is  the  dividing-point  between  Russian 
and  Afghan  possessions  at  Maruchak  for  15  miles. 
Still  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  natural  fron- 
tier betw^een  Maruchak  and  Pendjeh  is  at  the  north- 
ern end  of  the  Maruchak  Valley,  w^here  the  hills, 
closing  in  upon  the  river  on  both  sides,  separate  the 
Maruchak  acres  from  those  of  the  Pendjeh  oasis. 
Formerly,  too,  the  Murghab  flowed  down  the  north- 
ern end  of  the  Maruchak  Valley,  washing  the  western 
face.  It  has  now^  changed  its  course  and,  sw^eeping 
from  west  to  east,  w^ashes  the  eastern  aspect.  This 
deviation  had  an  important  bearing  upon  the  find- 
ings of  the  Anglo-Russian  Commission.  Under  their 
correct  and  literal  interpretation  of  the  protocol  the 
Russians  were  debarred  from  exercising  any  claim 
over  the  waters  of  canals  employed  for  irrigation, 
provided  their  heads  were  in  Afghan  territory.  By 
the  change  in  the  direction  of  the  Murghab  the 
head  of   the  waters  supplying  the   Pendjeh  oasis, 

130 


THE    MURGHAB    VALLEY 

which  proceed  from  the  Band-i-Nadir  Canal  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Murghab,  was  placed  within 
Afghan  territory.  A  modification  of  the  situation 
was  urged;  finally  the  boundary  was  made  to  pass 
from  Zulfikar  on  the  Hari  Rud  to  the  Kushk  and 
from  the  head  of  the  canal  in  the  Kashan  Valley  to 
the  head  of  the  Band-i-Nadir  on  the  Murghab,  due 
west  of  Maruchak  instead  of  to  a  point  north  of  it. 
This  readjustment  permitted  control  of  the  head 
waters  of  the  Band-i-Nadir  to  revert  to  Russia. 

The  Afghan  fortress  of  Maruchak  has  experienced 
a  varying  fortune,  the  vicissitudes  of  which  once 
brought  it  to  ruin  and  caused  its  defences  to  be 
abandoned.  Since  then  the  advance  of  the  Rus- 
sians has  thrown  it  into  prominence  again.  Its  walls 
have  been  restored,  although  it  can  never  serve  any 
other  purpose  than  that  of  a  frontier  post  of  observa- 
tion. The  fortress  is  in  the  shape  of  a  square  of 
which  the  outer  walls,  measuring  some  600  yards, 
rise  20  feet  from  the  side  of  a  moat.  The  main  en- 
trance faces  the  river  on  the  west.  Other  entrances 
of  less  importance  are  placed  at  the  north-east  and 
south-east  angles.  In  the  centre,  rising  from  a  cir- 
cular mound  some  40  feet  in  height  with  a  diam- 
eter of  250  yards,  is  an  inner  fortress.  Quarters  for 
the  troops  have  been  constructed  along  the  eastern 
wall  where  there  is  now  accommodation  for  1000 
men.  Gun  towers  stand  at  the  four  corners  of  the 
main  wall  and  an  infantry  platform  runs  round  the 
inner  face  of  the  square,  a  few  feet  below  the  parapet. 
At  an  angle  of  the  inner  fortress  and  slightly  higher 

131 


AFGHANISTAN 

than  the  fortress  itself  is  the  citadel,  some  80  yards 
square,  where  a  last  stand  would  be  made.  The  w^alls 
and  bastions  of  this  are  about  15  feet  high  and  gun 
platforms  have  been  constructed  at  the  corners. 

Bala  Murghab,  a  sister  fortress,  is  smaller  than 
INIaruchak  and  lies  about  46  miles  south-east  of 
Pendjeh.  The  principal  work  consists  of  a  fort  120 
yards  square,  situated  on  a  mound  itself  30  feet  in 
height;  the  walls  of  the  fort  rise  a  further  15  feet. 
An  underground  passage  from  it  leads  to  the  river 
and  there  are  quarters  for  200  cavalry,  300  infan- 
try, and  one  battery  of  artillery,  besides  storehouses 
and  a  magazine.  The  interior  of  the  fort  in  its 
present  size  does  not  afford  accommodation  for  the 
existing  garrison,  all  of  whom  are  Irregulars  with 
the  exception  of  the  officers.  The  larger  proportion 
of  the  mounted  men  have  their  lines  outside  the 
walls.  On  a  mound,  which  hitherto  has  marked 
the  ruins  of  an  ancient  citadel,  a  more  commodious 
fort  has  been  constructed.  It  stands  at  the  bend 
of  the  river,  covering  Robat-i-Ishmail  and  protect- 
ing the  entrance  to  the  Mangan  defile.  Its  dimen- 
sions provide  for  a  square  of  200  yards,  with  walls 
25  feet  in  height  and  an  inner  defence  work 
standing  some  50  feet  higher. 

Independent  of  the  regular  garrison  at  Herat, 
there  is  a  le\y  roll  for  the  Bala  Murghab  district 
of  1000  mounted  and  dismounted  men.  Two  hun- 
dred of  the  former  are  supposed  always  to  be  mus- 
tered as  Bala  Murghab  finds  details  for  a  number 
of  outlying  fatigues,  including  pickets  at  the  fords 

132 


THE    MURGHAB    VALLEY 

and  certain  mounted  patrols.  In  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  fort  there  is  a  settlement  containing 
several  thousand  families.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  the  garrison  at  this  point  is  comprised  of  Afghan 
Irregulars,  who  still  retain  their  old  titles  and  organ- 
isation. Their  company  strength  is  100  and  each 
company  is  quite  independent  of  the  remaining  ones. 
Five  companies  form  the  command  of  a  Sarhang, 
whose  superior  officer  is  a  Sartip.  Each  company 
commander  is  known  as  a  Sad  Bashi;  and  for  every 
ten  men  there  is  a  Dah  Bashi.  In  the  regular  Afghan 
army  the  commissioned  ranks  are  known  by  the  Eng- 
lish equivalent;  but  in  general  the  military  organisa- 
tion, whether  regular  or  irregular  in  men  as  in 
materiel,  is  hopeless. 

No  point  in  the  Murghab  region  is  more  important 
than  the  Pendjeh  oasis  as  an  agricultural  colony. 
It  is  principally  confined  to  the  limits  of  a  single 
valley,  some  25  miles  in  length  and  2  miles  in 
breadth.  Dotted  about  its  spreading  expanse  there 
are  a  number  of  tiny  settlements,  containing  in  all 
some  eight  to  nine  thousand  households.  The  areas 
under  cultivation  do  not  return  sufficient  grain  to 
support  so  large  a  population;  there  is,  therefore, 
a  constant  migration  of  Pendjeh  Sariks  to  the 
adjacent  valleys  of  Kushk  and  Maruchak  as  well 
as  to  the  more  distant  oases  of  Yulatan  and  Tejend, 
where  they  have  become  ardent  agriculturists. 

The  settlers  in  the  Pendjeh  Valley  are  divided  into 
five  sections.  Although  united  by  tribal  ties  inter- 
communal  jealousies  are  responsible  for  continuous 

133 


AFGHANISTAN 

discord.  The  richest  and  most  influential  section  is 
that  of  the  Soktis,  who  occupy  the  land  on  the  west- 
ern bank  of  the  Murghab  between  Pendjeh,  Kuh- 
nah,  and  Sari  Yazi,  a  distance  of  some  35  miles. 
The  Harzagis  settlement,  lying  on  the  same  bank, 
extends  between  Takhta  Bazaar  and  Maruchak; 
between  these  two  large  settlements  are  the  areas 
occupied  by  the  Khorassanlis.  The  two  remaining 
sections,  the  Bairach  and  the  Alishah,  share  the 
opposite  bank. 

The  occupation  of  the  Pendjeh  Valley  by  the 
Sariks  took  place  about  thirty  years  ago,  when  they 
were  turned  out  of  Merv  by  certain  of  the  Tekke 
tribes.  At  first  the  Soktis  w^ere  the  sole  possessors 
of  the  district;  but,  as  other  parties  came  in  detach- 
ments from  Merv,  the  different  sections,  increasing 
in  numbers  and  in  strength,  were  able  to  enforce 
upon  the  earlier  arrivals  a  general  division  of  the 
valley.  Under  existing  arrangements  the  Pendjeh 
oasis  has  developed,  the  advent  of  the  railway  having 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Russians  to  its  agri- 
cultural capacity.  There  must  be  now  some  75,000 
acres  under  cultivation,  the  entire  area  owing  its 
fertility  to  the  INIurghab  River,  whose  waters  are 
confined  by  the  Band-i-Nadir. 

The  Yulatan  oasis,  which  is  inhabited  by  those 
Sarik  Turkomans  who  moved  from  the  Pendjeh 
Valley,  similarly  possesses  an  unfailing  supply  of 
w^ater  from  the  huge  dam,  Band-i-Kazakli.  This  is 
drawn  from  the  Murghab  River  by  a  canal  and 
affords  water  to  125,000  acres,  at  a  velocity  of  1500 

134 


THE    MURGHAB    VALLEY 

feet  per  second.  The  depth  of  the  canal  is  sufficient 
to  carry  a  camel  off  its  legs.  Near  the  site  of  the 
dam  are  the  ruins  of  the  Sultan-i-band,  a  work  far 
vaster  than  any  of  the  present  day.  It  gave  28  feet 
head  of  water  and  made  the  fields  and  gardens  of 
Old  Merv  the  most  fertile  region  upon  the  globe's 
surface.  The  Sultan-i-band  was  destroyed  in  1784 
by  the  Amir  Murad  of  Bokhara,  an  act  which 
completely  ruined  the  prosperity  of  Merv.  Just  a 
century  later  the  Tsar,  to  whose  private  estates  the 
site  of  Old  Merv  belongs,  ordered  the  construction 
of  an  anient  13  miles  up  stream.  The  work  was 
carried  out  by  Colonel  Kashtalinski,  superintendent 
of  the  State  domains  at  Bairam  Ali.  It  includes  a 
dam  which  gives  14  feet  head  of  water  and  it  is 
connected  with  a  series  of  storage  basins,  feeding 
a  central  canal  20  miles  long.  This  in  its  turn  sup- 
plies 35  miles  of  secondary  canals  and  105  miles  of 
distributaries.  The  cost  of  these  splendid  opera- 
tions was  about  £105,000;  an  expenditure  which 
was  declared  by  an  eminent  English  authority  on 
irrigation  to  be  one-fifth  of  what  a  similar  work 
would  entail  in  India.  It  is  in  contemplation  to 
restore  the  Sultan-i-band  at  an  estimated  cost  of 
£210,000,  by  which  a  further  measure  of  prosperity 
will  be  assured  to  the  locality.  The  area  thus  irri- 
gated amounts  to  15,000  acres;  5000  of  which  are 
under  cotton,  while  3675  grow  wheat  and  barley. 
The  whole  is  let  out  to  Turkomans  and  Bokharans. 
The  mountains  of  cotton  waiting  for  transport  by 
rail  in  the  season  are  a  standing  proof  of  the  excel- 

135 


AFGHANISTAN 

lencc  of  crops,  which  are  said  to  return  but  Httle 
short  of  one  hundredfold.  The  demand  for  farms 
within  this  fertile  area  is  so  great  that  the  natives 
compete  for  the  privilege  of  holding  one  at  a  rent  in 
kind  amounting  to  a  quarter  of  the  gross  produce. 
In  spite  of  prohibitions  subletting  is  very  rife  and 
one  plot  frequently  supports  several  families. 


136 


CHAPTER  X 

HERAT  AND   THE  WESTERN  BORDER 

THE  province  of  Herat  extends  from  near  the 
sources  of  the  Hari  Rud  on  the  east  to 
the  Persian  frontier  on  the  west,  and  from 
the  Russian  southern  boundary  to  the  northern  hmits 
of  Seistan.  The  area  is  300  miles  from  east  to  west 
and  200  miles  from  north  to  south.  North,  south, 
and  west  there  are  tracts  of  unproductive  country, 
presenting  facilities  for  development  only  over  re- 
stricted surfaces.  In  the  east  the  upper  reaches  of 
the  Hari  Rud  Valley  stretch  away  to  the  mountain 
regions  of  the  Koh-i-Baba.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  the  valley  of  the  Hari  Rud  is  capable  of  furnish- 
ing supplies  for  an  army  of  occupation  which  should 
not  exceed  150,000  men.  It  is  this  fact,  coupled  with 
the  value  of  its  position  as  the  converging  point  of 
roads  from  the  Caspian,  Merv,  Meshed,  Bokhara, 
and  from  India  through  Kandahar,  which  has  in- 
vested Herat  with  the  title  of  The  Key  of  India. 
The  Hari  Rud  oasis  presents  a  wonderful  appearance 
of  fertility;  near  the  city,  groves  of  pistachia  and 
mulberry  trees,  blackberry  bushes,  wild  roses,  and 
innumerable  settlements  abound.  The  Hari  Rud, 
flowing  in  a  single  channel  100  to  140  feet  in  width 

137 


AFGHANISTAN 

which  diniinishcs  as  the  summer  wanes,  has  been  the 
means  of  converting  into  a  smihng  paradise  the  sur- 
rounding wilderness.  Flood-water  in  this  river  lasts 
from  the  close  of  January  until  the  end  of  March, 
when  fords  are  dangerous  to  cross.  The  subsidence 
of  flood-water  in  April  makes  it  more  readily  pas- 
sable, the  average  depth  of  the  fords  then  measuring 
4  feet.  Later,  when  the  warmer  weather  appears, 
the  permanent  channel  breaks  up  into  long  lakes,  fed 
by  springs  and  underground  continuations  of  sup- 
plementary streams.  The  northern  extremity  of  the 
river,  which  waters  the  Tejend  oasis  and  the  Sarakhs 
region,  preserves  in  the  main  the  characteristics  of 
the  upper  stream.  The  undulating  country  between 
the  Hari  Rud  and  the  Murghab,  extending  from  the 
northern  slopes  of  the  Paropamisus  to  the  edge  of 
the  Kara  Kum,  is  called  Badghis.  At  one  time  this 
district  included  the  oasis  of  Yulatan  and  even  now 
it  embraces  Pendjeh.  Across  it,  along  the  banks  of 
the  Murghab  and  through  the  valley  of  the  Kushk, 
runs  the  direct  road  from  Merv  to  Herat.  From  the 
levels  of  valleys  within  Russian  jurisdiction,  which 
are  about  2000  feet  above  sea-level,  the  road  rises 
throughout  a  distance  of  35  miles  until  it  pierces  the 
Paropamisus  Range  by  the  Ardewan  Pass,  4700  feet 
above  sea-level.  From  these  mountains  it  descends 
across  the  broken  slopes  of  the  Koh-i-Mulla  Khwaja 
until  it  meets  at  last  the  alluvial  flats  of  the  Hari 
Rud  plain,  w^herein  the  city  of  Herat  stands,  2600 
feet  above  sea-level. 

The  city  of  Herat,  built   entirely  of  mud  with 

138 


THE    WESTERN    BORDER 

certain  outworks  lying  beyond  its  walls,  stands  in  a 
hollow.  It  forms  a  quadrangle  1600  yards  by  1500 
yards.  On  the  western,  southern,  and  eastern  faces 
the  wall  is  a  straight  line,  the  only  projecting  points 
being  the  gateways  and  the  bastions.  On  the  north- 
ern face,  the  line  is  broken  by  the  old  Ark  or  citadel, 
which  stands  back  about  200  yards  from  the  main 
wall  and  is  situated  upon  a  high,  artificial  mound, 
which  is  250  feet  in  width  and  between  50  and  60 
feet  in  height.  Above  this  the  walls  of  the  city  rise 
an  additional  30  feet.  There  are  five  gates  —  the 
Kutabchak  near  the  north-east  angle  of  the  wall 
and  the  Malik  gate  at  the  re-entering  angle  formed 
by  the  wall  of  the  Ark  and  the  continuation  of  the 
north  wall.  The  other  gates  are  on  the  western, 
southern,  and  eastern  faces,  the  names  respectively 
being  the  Irak,  Kandahar,  and  Kushk.  Four  streets, 
running  from  the  centre  of  each  face,  meet  at  the 
Charsu,  a  domed  square  covered  with  beams  and 
matting  in  the  heart  of  the  city.  A  wide  road 
encircles  the  walls  on  the  inside,  although  its  upkeep 
has  been  sadly  neglected.  The  defences  of  the  city 
are  contained  by  the  wall  which  stands  above  the 
mound.  On  its  outer  slope  there  were  at  one  time 
two  parallel  trenches,  covered  by  low  parapets;  but 
the  trenches,  like  the  moat  at  the  foot  of  the  mound, 
are  now  choked  up.  There  are  25  bastions  on  each 
wall.  The  gates,  defended  by  works  differing  from 
one  another  in  shape,  are  of  irregular  design.  They 
resemble  redans  with  sides  of  unequal  length,  and 
project  about  200  feet  beyond  the  main  wall.     The 

139 


AFGHANISTAN 

defences  of  the  gateways  are  of  a  lower  profile  than 
those  of  the  main  works.  At  the  apex  of  the  pro- 
jection a  small  rectangular  traverse  screens  the 
postern. 

The  northern  wall  is  irregular.  Near  its  centre, 
thrown  back  about  200  yards  from  the  main  wall  and 
standing  on  a  mound  of  its  own,  is  the  position  of  the 
old  citadel.  A  "return"  in  the  wall,  leading  down  on 
this  work  from  the  eastern  portion  of  the  north  face, 
terminates  on  the  counterscarp  of  its  ditch.  The 
western  face,  retired  about  100  yards  behind  the  east- 
ern face,  connects  with  the  north-west  angle  of  the 
citadel  by  a  slight  bend.  There  are  two  gateways  on 
this  front,  the  one  about  200  yards  to  the  westw^ard 
of  the  north-east  angle  and  the  other  in  the  main 
wall.  This  latter  is  unprovided  w^ith  the  irregular 
projecting  work  attached  to  the  others. 

The  wall  of  the  fort  is  about  14  feet  thick  at  the 
base,  9  feet  thick  at  the  top  and  18  feet  high,  exclu- 
sive of  the  parapet.  The  parapet  is  2|  feet  thick 
at  the  base,  9  inches  at  the  crest,  and  7J  feet  in 
height.  It  is  loop  holed  and  crowned  w ith  the  ruins 
of  small  battlements  which,  like  so  much  attaching 
to  Herat,  have  been  permitted  to  crumble  away. 
In  several  places  the  walls  have  broken  down,  the 
repairs  subsequently  effected  adding  to  the  general 
insecurity  of  what  has  remained  rather  than  im- 
proving the  original  breaches.  The  width  of  the 
pathway  behind  the  parapet  is  6  feet;  but  there  are 
many  gaps,  and  continuity  of  communication  is  pre- 
served only  by  the  severe  physical  exertion  of  flying 

140 


THE    WESTERN    BORDER 

leaps.  Their  condition  renders  them  ill-adapted  to 
the  employment  of  artillery,  while  the  ramps  leading 
up  to  this  pathway  are  barely  broad  enough  to 
admit  the  passage  of  a  single  man. 

At  one  time  this  wall  was  flanked  by  small  exterior 
towers,  placed  at  intervals  of  100  feet.  They  varied 
in  size  and  are  now  so  generally  in  ruin  that  it  is 
difficult  to  estimate  their  dimensions.  In  their  orig- 
inal state  they  were  probably  from  40  to  60  feet  in 
diameter,  the  larger  towers  being  30  feet  in  width 
and  projecting  25  feet.  In  contrast  with  the  con- 
taining wall  of  the  city  the  wall  of  the  fort  possesses 
an  outward  inclination,  equal  perhaps  to  one-seventh 
of  its  height.  The  slope  of  the  towers  is  generally 
greater;  many  of  them  are  splayed  at  the  base  to 
accommodate  their  foundations  to  the  sloping  surface 
upon  which  they  rest.  The  whole  work  appears 
originally  to  have  been  constructed  of  sun-dried 
brick,  backed  with  layers  of  moist  earth.  Some  of 
the  towers  have  foundations  and  facings  of  rough 
stone  or  burnt  brick,  laid  in  mud.  The  wall  itself 
is  a  very  old  one;  stone,  brick,  and  earth  have  been 
used  indiscriminately,  so  that  it  now  presents  a 
patchwork  appearance. 

The  interior  slope  of  the  mound,  upon  which  the 
walls  stand,  is  steep  and  from  the  base  of  the  wall 
drops  perpendicularly  into  the  town.  No  attention 
whatever  appears  to  have  been  paid  to  this  part  of 
the  fortifications.  The  inhabitants  of  the  city  have 
been  for  several  generations  in  the  habit  of  removing 
earth  from  it  for  the  construction  or  repair  of  their 

141 


AFGHANISTAN 

dwellings.  At  one  time,  too,  houses  were  erected 
close  to  the  foot  of  the  rampart  and  also  upon  it,  the 
slope  being  excavated  to  admit  of  the  walls  being 
erected  against  it.  A  partial  collapse  of  the  mound 
has  followed,  the  fallen  masses  of  earth  serving  as  a 
convenient  resting-place  for  the  dead. 

The  old  citadel  is  a  brick  structure  150  yards  long 
from  east  to  west  and  50  yards  wide.  It  occupies 
an  elevation  of  its  own,  and,  when  erected,  stood 
nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  north  face  of  the  city.  It 
was  flanked  by  several  towers,  differing  greatly  in 
size;  those  at  the  angles  were  the  largest,  while  those 
on  the  north-east  angle  were  the  most  imposing. 
The  interior,  in  part  occupied  by  Feramorz  Khan, 
the  Commander-in-Chief,  is  divided  into  three  courts. 
The  inhabited  portion  is  a  lofty  building,  supported 
by  four  bastions  along  its  face,  with  the  entrance 
gate  facing  the  main  street  to  the  Charsu.  It  fills 
a  space  110  yards  in  length  by  60  yards  in  breadth. 
The  Ark,  from  its  massive  appearance,  is  very  digni- 
fied, but  it  is  not  calculated  to  w^ithstand  protracted 
defence  if  the  town  itself  w'cre  captured.  Its  walls, 
thickly  built  but  of  inferior  masonry,  are  exposed 
from  base  to  parapet,  and  a  few  shells  dropped 
behind  them  would  create  great  havoc. 

The  Ark-i-nao,  or  new  citadel,  serves  as  a  parade- 
ground  for  the  garrison.  Weak  both  in  plan  and 
profile,  it  is  constructed  in  advance  of  the  mound, 
but  80  feet  below  it  and  upon  a  level  w^ith  the 
country.  It  consists  of  four  straight  walls  300  yards 
in  length.     The  face  is  flanked  by  five  semicircular 

142 


THE    WESTERN    BORDER 

towers,  each  possessing  a  diameter  of  30  feet.  The 
walls  are  13  feet  thick  at  the  base  and  8  feet  at  the 
top,  crowned  on  their  outer  edge  by  a  parapet  6  feet 
high  and  Ij  feet  thick.  There  was  once  a  ditch  30 
feet  in  width  and  15  feet  in  depth  at  a  distance  of 
60  feet  from  its  base,  but  it  is  now  a  general  recep- 
tacle for  the  refuse  of  the  city. 

Within  recent  years  the  fortifications  of  Herat 
have  undergone  radical  alteration.  At  one  time, 
prior  to  the  Pendjeh  crisis,  the  city  could  not  be  said 
to  possess  an  esplanade  nor  any  free  field  of  fire. 
Detached  buildings,  even  small  villages,  surrounded 
it,  while  cultivation  extended  close  to  the  walls;  and 
where  agriculture  ended  the  cemeteries  of  the  city 
began.  Mosques,  tombs,  and  reservoirs  stood  oppo- 
site the  gateways,  some  of  them  lying  within  100 
yards  of  the  walls.  Vast  mounds  of  earth  were  also 
close  at  hand.  Many  of  these  defects  were  removed^ 
under  the  guidance  of  the  British  officers  who  were 
assisting  in  the  demarcation  of  the  Russo-Afghan 
boundary  in  1884-1887;  in  1903-1904,  under  the 
supervision  of  Feramorz  Khan,  additional  improve- 
ments were  made  and  a  number  of  mountain  and 
field  batteries  installed. 

In  general  the  Herati  is  not  a  fighting  man  and 
cares  little  for  military  appearances.  Indeed,  if 
choice  were  left  to  the  Heratis  they  would  sooner 
surrender  at  once  to  the  Russians  than  run  the  risk 
of  future  disturbances.  The  garrison  is  not  generally 
drawn  from  the  locality  and  seldom  includes  many 

1  "The  Indian  Borderland."  Colonel  Sir  T.  H.  Holdich. 

143 


AFGHANISTAN 

Ilcrati,  Ilazara,  or  Taimani  recruits.  Commanded 
by  Feraniorz  Khan,  it  is  composed  mainly  of  regi- 
ments from  Kandahar  and  Kabul,  whose  men  lounge 
through  the  streets  in  unkempt  undress  or  clad  in 
dirty  linen  and  to  whom  belongs  such  little  martial 
spirit  as  may  be  detected  in  the  city.  In  this  direc- 
tion nothing  can  be  more  marked  than  the  difference 
between  the  Herati  and  the  Afghan  soldier.  The 
former,  a  peasant  pure  and  simple,  is  unversed  in 
military  science,  while  it  is  a  rare  sight  to  see  the  sol- 
diers without  an  extraordinary  number  and  variety 
of  weapons  attached  to  their  persons.  Each  carries, 
as  a  rule,  two  pistols,  a  sword,  rifle,  and  many  knives, 
their  swagger  and  overbearing  disposition  causing 
them  to  be  hated  by  the  wretched  population.  The 
position  of  the  city  to-day  as  between  Russia  and 
India  is  rather  that  of  a  woman  whose  wares  are  put 
up  to  the  highest  bidder.  It  is  not  particularly  par- 
tial to  the  rule  of  the  Amir,  to  the  overtures  of  Rus- 
sia, or  to  the  influence  of  India.  One  might  say  that 
it  were  indifferent  alike  to  each  of  these  three  inter- 
ested parties  and  that  it  is  merely  a  question  of  price 
which  will  determine  its  surrender.  It  must  be  con- 
fessed that  the  fortress  occupies  an  unfortunate 
position.  Whatever  the  garrison  might  attempt  in 
support  of  the  huge  earthworks  which  the  place 
boasts,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  sympathies  of  the 
population  —  if  the  history  of  the  past  goes  for  any- 
thing —  would  be  given  to  any  who  contrived  to 
evict  the  Afghans;  and,  as  all  reports  concur  in  allud- 
ing to  the  lavish  manner  in  which  Russian  roubles 

144 


THE    WESTERN    BORDER 

have  circulated  in  the  province,  the  statement  may 
be  hazarded  that,  under  certain  contingencies,  the 
tribes  on  the  north-western  border  of  Afghanistan 
would  declare  for  the  Russians.  Upon  this  aspect 
of  the  situation  various  changes  introduced  by  the 
Amir  into  the  administration  of  Herat  province,  and 
concerning  equally  all  posts  along  the  banks  of  the 
Oxus  and  the  western  border,  have  direct  bearing. 
Although  there  is  practically  no  intercourse  between 
the  Afghan  and  Russian  posts  on  either  bank  of  the 
Amu  Daria,  indeed  the  ferry  station  at  Chushka 
Guzar  is  constantly  sniped  from  the  Afghan  bank 
by  Pathan  pickets,  there  has  been  an  insidious 
growth  of  association  between  the  Herat  officials  and 
the  Russians.  Quite  lately  the  Kazi  Saad-ud-Din, 
Governor  of  Herat,  was  recalled,  the  Shaghassi  Mo- 
hammed Sarwar  Khan  taking  his  place,  while  a  warn- 
ing was  administered  to  the  commander-in-chief. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  these  officials  accepted  compli- 
mentary gifts  from  the  Russian  officials  at  Merv,  and 
the  transference  of  the  one  and  the  rebuke  of  the 
other  may  check  the  propensity  of  the  native  to  find 
in  the  efficacious  application  of  the  Russian  rouble  a 
panacea  for  all  evils.  In  respect  of  the  soldiers  them- 
selves, orders  have  been  issued  from  Kabul  that  all 
detachments  on  frontier  duty  are  to  be  relieved 
monthly.  Obviously  Herat  is  too  close  to  the  Rus- 
sian border  not  to  have  been  intimidated  by  the 
spectacle  of  Russia's  strength  in  Central  Asia.  A 
similar  state  of  things  might  not  be  expected  to  pre- 
vail in  Kabul  and  Kandahar.     Kabul  is  too  much 

145 


AFGHANISTAN 

under  the  personal  sway  of  the  Amir  to  express  any 
active  interest  in  Russia  or  India,  while  Kandahar  has 
been  associated  too  closely  with  the  reverses  which 
British  arms  have  experienced  in  Afghanistan  to  have 
overmuch  respect  for  the  greatness  of  Hindustan. 
Russia  is  really  the  supreme  and  dominating  factor 
in  Afghanistan,  not  only  along  the  northern,  eastern, 
and  western  frontiers,  but  throughout  the  kingdom. 

Herat  is  a  dirty  town.  The  small  lanes,  crooked 
and  narrow,  which  branch  from  the  main  thorough- 
fares, are  roofed  and  their  gloom  offers  safe  harbour- 
age for  the  perpetration  of  every  possible  offence. 
The  breadth  of  the  streets  is  only  12  feet,  but  in 
their  narrowest  parts  even  this  space  is  reduced. 
Pools  of  stagnant  water  left  by  the  rains,  piles  of 
refuse  thrown  from  the  houses,  together  with  dead 
cats,  dogs,  and  the  excrement  of  human  beings,  min- 
gle their  effluvia  in  these  low  tunnels.  Much  of  the 
city  has  been  abandoned  and  various  travellers,  in 
reporting  their  experiences,  agree  that  the  bazaars 
are  of  a  very  inferior  order.  On  either  side  of  the 
streets  there  are  spacious  serais  where  the  merchants 
have  their  depots.  The  western  face  of  the  city  is 
the  least  populated,  the  buildings  in  this  quarter 
being  a  mass  of  ruins.  The  houses  are  constructed 
usually  in  the  form  of  hollow  squares.  They  are 
commonly  of  one  storey,  built  of  brick  and  mud, 
with  very  thick  walls.  The  roofs  are  vaulted  and 
composed,  equally  with  the  walls,  of  mud;  the  en- 
trances  are  low  and  winding.  These  houses  are 
quite  incombustible.    The  larger  establishments  have 

146 


THE    WESTERN    BORDER 

stable  and  servants'  courts  attached  to  them,  and 
every  courtyard  has,  in  its  centre,  a  well  or  small 
reservoir  for  the  reception  of  water.  All  the  houses 
are  more  or  less  capable  of  resisting  men  armed  with 
rifles,  and  a  determined  garrison  might,  by  barri- 
cading the  streets  leading  to  the  ramparts  and 
loopholing  the  adjacent  houses,  protract  the  defence 
of  the  place  for  some  time  after  the  walls  had  been 
gained  by  the  enemy.  There  are  several  spacious 
caravansaries  in  the  town,  all  of  which  open  upon 
the  street  leading  from  the  Kandahar  gate  to  the 
citadel  and  would  serve,  in  emergency,  for  the  accom- 
modation of  troops. 

The  principal  building  in  Herat  is  the  Masjid-i- 
Jama,  which  comprises  an  area  of  800  yards  square. 
It  was  built  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  in 
the  reign  of  Shah  Husein  by  his  relative  Prince 
Shibali.  When  perfect  it  was  4G5  feet  long  and 
275  feet  wide;  it  had  408  cupolas,  130  windows,  444 
pillars,  6  entrances,  and  was  adorned  in  the  most 
magnificent  manner  with  gilding,  carving,  precious 
mosaic,  and  other  elaborate  and  costly  embellish- 
ments. It  stands  in  the  north-east  quarter  of  the 
city,  about  300  yards  from  the  east  walls. 

The  palace  of  Chahar  Bagh  is  situated  to  the  west 
of  the  Mas jid-i- Jama  and  was  originally  the  winter 
residence  of  the  chiefs  of  Herat.  It  is  now  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Governor  of  the  city,  but  has  been  con- 
siderably enlarged  and  improved.  A  fine  garden  has 
been  laid  out  with  flower-beds  and  a  fountain.  It  is 
enclosed  on  either  side. 

147 


AFGHANISTAN 

The  inhabitants  of  Herat,  who  are  mostly  Shiah 
Mohammedans,  comprise  Afghans,  Hazaras,  Jam- 
shidis,  and  Tiamanis,  with  700  Hindoos  and  some 
400  famihes  of  Jews.  Its  population  has  always 
been  subject  to  constant  fluctuation.  The  existing 
number  is  now  a  little  less  than  18,000  people, 
exclusive  of  the  garrison,  which  in  peace  numbers 
5  regiments  of  regular  infantry,  20  squadrons  of 
cavalry,  1  battalion  of  sappers,  and  8  batteries. 
I  The  city  has  declined  considerably  from  its  quon- 
dam opulence.  There  is  scarcely  any  trade  and  the 
houses  are  deserted.  It  is,  nevertheless,  famous  for 
its  fruit  and  its  breed  of  horses ;  but  the  Heratis  have 
endured  too  many  of  "the  slings  and  arrows  of  out- 
rageous fortune"  to  be  able  to  withstand  adversity 
and  bad  seasons.  Wars  and  sieges,  pestilence  and 
famine  have  had  their  effect;  and  the  scene,  which 
Vambery  described  so  brightly,  is  now  sombre  and 
melancholy.  No  longer  is  Herat  the  great  central 
market  between  India  and  Persia^  It  still  receives  a 
certain  amount  of  merchandise  from  Kabul,  such  as 
shawls,  indigo,  sugar,  chintz,  muslin,  bafta,  kincob, 
hides,  and  leather.  These  are  exported  to  Meshed, 
Yezd,  Teheran,  Baghdad,  and  Kirman,  and  ex- 
changed for  tea,  sugar-candy,  china-ware,  broad- 
cloth, chintz,  silk,  copper,  pepper,  dates,  shawls, 
numnahs,  carpets,  and  all  kinds  of  spices.  Silk  is 
obtainable  in  the  vicinity  of  Herat,  and  lambs' 
fleeces  and  sheepskins  are  made  up  locally  into  caps 
and  cloaks.  There  are,  too,  a  number  of  native 
craftsmen  who  work   in  silk   and   metals,  leather, 

148 


THE    WESTERN    BORDER 

iron,  and  wood;  but  there  are  few  opportunities  for 
their  skill  and  no  money  with  which  to  pay  for  it. 
The  carpets  of  Herat,  once  so  famed  for  softness  and 
for  the  brilliance  and  permanence  of  their  colours, 
are  no  longer  in  demand.  At  one  time  they  were 
made  in  all  sizes,  ranging  in  price  from  10  to  1000 
rupees;  but  their  day  is  gone.  Indeed,  in  its  pres- 
ent impoverished  state,  the  city  is  eloquent  only 
of  a  bygone  grandeur.  Everything  is  decayed  and 
decrepit. 


149 


CHAPTER    XI 

KANDAHAR 

THE  road  from  Herat  to  Kandahar  lies  through 
districts  rich  in  suppHes.  From  Herat  there 
are  two  great  roads,  a  northern  and  a  south- 
ern, the  latter  passing  through  Sabzawar,  Farah,  and 
Girishk  to  Kandahar,  in  which  district  it  crosses  the 
Zamindawar  country,  peopled  in  the  main  by  the 
Duranis  as  far  as  the  fords  on  the  Helmund. 

Sabzawar,  which  is  280  miles  from  Kandahar,  is 
situated  almost  midway  between  Herat  and  Farah 
—  90  miles  from  Herat  and  71  miles  from  Farah. 
It  stands  3550  feet  above  sea-level  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Harud  River,  in  an  elbow  of  the  stream 
and  at  the  foot  of  the  outlying  spurs  of  the  main 
ranges.  Beyond  and  partly  surrounding  it  there  is  a 
wide  open  plain,  some  4  miles  in  circumference,  well 
irrigated  from  the  waters  of  the  Harud  River  and, 
as  a  consequence,  highly  productive.  The  Sabza- 
war district  contains  the  most  fertile  areas  in  the 
Herat  Province,  a  benevolent  attention  upon  the 
part  of  Nature  that  renders  the  region  of  service  as 
an  intermediate  base  of  supplies.  No  force,  indeed, 
could  resist  the  temptation  of  staying  at  such  a 
point  to  refresh   both  man  and  beast,  and  to  re- 

150 


KANDAHAR 

assemble  its  transport.  The  position  is  readily  pro- 
tected and  the  defensive  value  of  the  heights,  which 
lie  2  miles  distant  to  the  south  of  the  town,  could 
be  supplemented  by  the  flooding  of  the  lowlands 
from  numerous  water-courses  which  intersect  the 
plain.  The  town  draws  its  water  from  the  Harud 
River,  but  certain  of  the  villages  are  dependent 
upon  canals.  Several  ruins  impart  an  air  of  desola- 
tion to  the  plain,  yet  a  pleasing  sense  of  cultiva- 
tion exists  around  the  town  itself,  arising  from  the 
sparkle  of  running  water  and  the  freshness  of  green 
trees. 

In  recent  years  Sabzawar  has  outgrown  its  origi- 
nal dimensions,  and  the  fort,  a  square  structure  with 
walls  200  yards  to  250  yards  in  length,  seven  circular 
bastions  on  each  front  and  one  gate  in  the  south  face, 
has  been  abandoned.  Its  walls  are  in  ruins  and  the 
interior  is  uninhabited,  save  for  a  small  colony  of 
Shikarpuri  Hindoos.  Outside  the  wall  is  a  ditch, 
now  dry  and  partially  filled  with  refuse.  In  the  cen- 
tre of  this  forlorn  scene  there  is  the  Governor's  resi- 
dence, permitting  a  pleasant  view  of  green  trees  and 
fresh-looking  grass,  cool  and  even  healthful.  The 
town  proper,  although  such  a  dignified  description 
is  inaccurate  as  the  great  majority  of  the  popula- 
tion live  in  villages  beyond  the  walls,  is  well-to-do, 
thriving,  and  the  centre  of  a  busy  trade.  Between 
Nasratabad  and  itself  trade  is  peculiarly  active,  the 
hides,  wool,  goat-skins,  and  dried  fruits  forwarded 
from  Seistan  to  Turkestan  making  it  a  point  of  call. 
Piece-goods,  sugar,   and   iron-ware   are  imported  in 

151 


AFGHANISTAN 

return.  The  export  trade  of  the  town  has  an  an- 
nual vakie  of  1,500,000  rupees  Indian,  and  the  reve- 
nue of  the  district  is  33,000  tomans  in  cash,  and 
4000  kharwars  in  grain.  The  trade  is  controlled  by 
Russian  Armenian  merchants  who,  resident  in  its 
vicinity,  travel  between  Seistan  and  the  surrounding 
region,  pushing  articles  of  Russian  manufacture.  Their 
activity  in  this  respect  has  created  an  important  de- 
mand for  such  goods,  which  quite  ousts  the  few  signs 
of  Indian  trade  that  the  place  at  one  time  revealed. 

Sabzawar,  the  town,  is  enclosed  within  a  high 
wall,  pierced  by  four  gates  —  the  Irak  gate  on  the 
west,  the  Nishapur  gate  on  the  east,  the  Herat  gate 
on  the  north,  and  the  Farah  gate  on  the  south.  The 
bazaar,  in  which  are  nearly  800  shops,  stretches 
between  the  eastern  and  western  gates  across  the 
town.  Its  breadth  is  possibly  half  a  mile  and  the 
circumference  of  the  town  is  a  little  under  2J  miles. 
The  town  is  only  a  gathering  place  for  the  district 
which  supports  a  number  of  villages  and,  together 
with  the  enveloping  pasturage  and  a  wide  belt  of 
cultivation,  is  inhabited  by  Nurzai  Duranis.  Each 
village  is  a  small  fort  in  itself  and  is  surrounded  by 
a  high  mud-wall  erected  for  purposes  of  security. 
In  size  these  forts  are  about  60  yards  square;  in 
all  there  may  be  some  5000  households  in  the  dis- 
trict, which  may  be  apportioned  into  4500  in  the 
villages,  400  in  the  town,  100  in  the  fort,  with  a 
combined  population  of  12,000  souls. 

Before  reaching  Farah  it  is  necessary  to  cross  the 
Farah  Rud.     This  river,  rising  in  the  Taimani  coun- 

152 


KANDAHAR 

try,  flows  past  Farah  and  Lash  into  the  Hamun  at 
its  north-west  angle,  after  a  southerly  course  200 
miles  in  length.     Its  volume  varies  with  the  seasons. 
The  water  is  usually  clear  and  not  quite  drinkable 
for,  after  the  main  stream  has  been  exhausted  by  the 
fields,  the  pools  which  remain  in  its  deeper  parts 
quickly   become   stagnant.     In    the   spring   it   is   a 
wide,  deep  river,  always   with  sufiicient  water  for 
irrigation  in  its  course:  even  when  nearly  dry,  water 
is  to  be  found  by  digging  a  foot  into  the  river-bed. 
In  the  summer  it  is  crossed  on  inflated  skins  or  rafts 
of  wood  and  reeds.     The  banks  of  the  Farah  Rud 
are  covered  with  a  jungle  growth  of  tamarisk  and 
mimosa.     At  the  point  where  it  is  crossed  by  the 
north  road  from  Herat  to  Kandahar  it  is  fordable, 
although  the  bed  is  very  irregular,  with  alternate 
rapids  and  deep  pools.     The  ford  is   1000  feet  in 
breadth,  but  the  channel  in  the  dry  season  contracts 
to  50  yards,  with  a  depth  of  2J  feet.     During  the 
flood   season  caravans  are   apt   to   be  detained   for 
many  weeks.     At  Farah  the   banks  are  400  yards 
apart,  with  a  stream  in  the  dry  season  of  150  yards 
in  breadth  and  2  feet  of  water.     At  this  point  it  is 
both  clear  and  rapid. 

Farah,  2460  feet  above  sea-level,  lies  170  miles 
south  of  Herat,  71  miles  from  Sabzawar  on  the 
south  Kandahar  road,  150  miles  from  Girishk,  and 
225  miles  from  Kandahar.  It  is  a  square,  walled 
town;  lying  north  and  south,  and  standing  well  out 
in  the  plain,  it  has  a  diameter  of  one  mile  and  is  in 
ruins.     The  wall  by  which  it  is  surrounded  is  strongly 

153 


AFGHANISTAN 

reminiscent  of  Herat  and  comprises  an  enormous 
embankment  of  earth,  mixed  with  chopped  straw. 
A  covered  way  entirely  surrounds  it  on  the  outside, 
and  its  original  height  was  between  35  and  40  feet. 
Towers  rested  on  the  ramparts  at  one  time,  but, 
deserted  by  its  inhabitants  and  neglected  by  the 
garrison  which  is  its  sole  population,  it  has  fallen 
altogether  from  its  high  estate.  The  town  has  two 
gates,  that  of  Herat  in  the  centre  of  the  north 
face  and  that  of  Kandahar  exactly  opposite  on  the 
south  side,  the  citadel  occupying  the  north  angle 
of  the  wall.  Farah  is  no  longer  a  city.  Desolate, 
ruined,  and  abandoned,  its  position  still  is  of  ex- 
treme importance,  as  it  commands  the  Herat  and 
Kandahar  road  and  the  northern  entrance  into  Seis- 
tan.  But  the  water  in  the  fort  is  bad  and  the 
place  is  unheal thful.  A  general  bonfire  of  the  re- 
mains should  complete  the  wreck  which  time  has  so 
nearly  accomplished.  Nowadays  it  does  not  con- 
tain more  than  fifty  houses,  yet  it  could  easily  hold 
several  thousand.  Those  still  standing  are  con- 
cealed by  the  ruins;  and  scattered  jets  of  smoke, 
rising  from  heaps  of  debris,  are  the  only  indications 
of  actual  life.  Formerly  a  bazaar  crossed  the  town 
from  the  Kandahar  gate  to  the  Herat  gate;  but  the 
few  shops  which  remain  are  now  congregated  near 
the  Herat  gate,  the  sole  industry  of  the  people  be- 
ing the  manufacture  of  gunpowder  from  saltpetre. 
This  is  collected  from  the  numerous  water-pits  which 
go  to  make  up  the  general  character  of  the  scene 
within  the  walls. 

154 


KANDAHAR 

Between  Farah  and  Kandahar  there  is  the  Bakwa 
plain,  which  is  associated  in  the  minds  of  the  Afghans 
with  a  tradition  that  identifies  it  with  the  scene  of 
some  future  battle  between  the  Russian  and  British 
forces.  The  plain  is  a  dead  level  stretch  without 
trees  or  growth  of  any  kind  to  vary  its  monotony, 
and  it  is  to  its  western  end  that  the  scene  of  the 
prophecy  refers.  The  usual  version  of  the  story 
mentions  as  a  concluding  detail  that,  after  the  fight, 
no  less  then  12,000  riderless  horses  will  be  found 
wandering  over  it.^  The  Afghans  attach  consider- 
able belief  to  this  prophecy  which,  according  to 
Colonel  Yate  who  went  to  the  pains  of  unearthing 
its  origin,  may  be  attributed  to  a  native  of  Kuchan, 
Shah  Ni'-Amat  Ulla  Wani  of  Kirman,  who  died  in 
the  year  1400  at  the  age  of  ninety-seven,  having 
attained  considerable  reputation  as  an  author,  phi- 
losopher, and  sage. 

From  Farah  to  Girishk,  situated  on  the  Helmund 
River,  is  a  distance  of  150  miles.  This  river,  which 
rises  at  Fazindaz  in  the  western  slopes  of  the  Pagh- 
man  Mountains,  flows  with  a  course  generally  south- 
west for  over  GOO  miles,  ultimately  falling  into  the 
Seistan  Lake.  The  first  point  about  which  any  reli- 
able information  exists  is  at  Gardan  Diwar,  about 
40  miles  from  its  source.  It  here  runs  along  the 
north  side  of  the  Urt  plateau  at  an  elevation  of 
11,500  feet,  about  12  yards  wide,  less  than  a  foot 
in  depth  in  winter,  and  with  a  brisk  current;  it  is 
joined  by  a  tributary,  the  Ab-i-Siah,  coming  from 

'  "Northern  Afghanistan."  Major  C.  E.  Yate. 

155 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  southern  slopes  of  the  Haji  Khak  Pass.  In  the 
summer  this  upper  portion  of  the  Helmund  is  a 
favourite  resort  of  the  pastoral  tribes  of  the  Eastern 
area.  Thence  it  passes  through  a  deep  valley,  hug- 
ging the  south  side  of  the  Koh-i-Baba  for  35  miles 
to  Ghaoch  Khol,  its  banks  fringed  with  rose-bushes 
and  osiers.  At  this  point  it  is  crossed  by  a  bridge, 
unites  with  a  rivulet  from  the  north  and  with 
the  Ab-Dilawar  from  the  south-west.  From  this  to 
Diwal  Khol,  about  25  miles  farther,  it  pursues  the 
same  westerly  direction  which  it  has  had  from  its 
source.  A  few  miles  beyond  this  point  the  stream 
gives  a  bold  sweep  to  the  south  for  80  miles,  as  far 
as  Chakmakchak.  Here  it  is  crossed  by  the  road 
going  west  towards  Herat  and  receives  a  consider- 
able feeder  from  the  north.  The  river  then  turns 
slightly  to  the  south-west  and  keeps  this  direction 
for  about  120  miles  as  far  as  Sakhir,  where  roads 
from  Bamian,  Maidan,  and  Girishk  meet.  From 
Sakhir  to  Girishk,  a  distance  of  perhaps  150  miles, 
its  course  is  more  south,  and  25  miles  below  Sakhir 
it  is  joined  from  the  east  by  the  Tezin  stream. 
At  Garmab,  50  miles  below  this  again,  it  is  met 
by  the  Khudrud,  where  it  is  crossed  60  miles  above 
Girishk.  At  this  point  the  banks  of  the  Helmund 
are  1000  yards  apart;  the  right  bank  low  and  sandy 
and  the  left  bank  high  and  rocky.  Sometimes  when 
the  volume  of  the  river  has  diminished  the  breadth 
of  the  Helmund  at  Girishk  itself  is  reduced  to 
300  yards;  the  stream  flow^ing  smoothly  with  a 
mean  depth  at  the  ford  of  3  feet.  In  mid- 
156 


KANDAHAR 

June,  again,  it  is  barely  passable  by  infantry;  but 
3  miles  up  stream,  where  the  river  divides  into 
three  branches  and  the  southern  Herat-Kandahar 
road  crosses,  there  is  a  ferry,  in  addition  to  several 
good  fords.  Here  the  depth  is  less  than  4  feet 
and  the  breadth  across  each  arm  varies  between 
70  and  150  yards.  About  45  miles  below  Girishk 
and  just  below  Kala-i-Bist  is  an  island  formed  by 
the  river.  It  is  joined  on  the  left  by  its  great  trib- 
utary the  Argand-ab,  from  which  point  its  width 
varies  between  300  and  400  yards,  with  an  average 
depth  of  IJ  to  2  fathoms.  Thence  to  Benadar 
Kalan,  a  distance  of  70  miles,  its  direction  is  south 
and  from  this  it  turns  west  for  120  miles.  At  Pula- 
lak,  100  miles  distant,  it  is  usually  400  yards  wide, 
very  deep  and  flowing  in  a  broad  stretch  of  water 
as  far  as  Traku.  Here,  its  progress  arrested  by 
some  sand-hills,  it  takes  a  sudden  turn  to  the  north- 
west and  runs  for  45  miles  in  that  direction;  finally 
it  divides  into  the  three  branches,  Rod-i-Seistan, 
Rod-i-Purian,  and  the  Nad  Ah.  Since  1895  the 
Rod-i-Purian  has  been  the  main  channel,  displacing 
the  Nad  Ali  course.  The  river,  even  in  the  dry 
season,  is  never  without  a  plentiful  supply  of  water. 
The  fort  of  Girishk  stands  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Helmund  about  Ij  miles  from  the  stream 
upon  the  high  road  between  Kandahar  and  Herat. 
Its  position  seems  to  have  been  determined  by  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  fords  across  the  Helmund ;  also 
by  the  vicinity  of  the  ferry,  which,  when  the  river 
is  not  fordable,  is  usually  established  at  a  narrow 

157 


AFGHANISTAN 

part  of  the  stream  below  the  fort.  From  the  far  side 
of  the  river,  Girishk  appears  to  have  more  strength 
and  to  be  in  better  order  than  inspection  proves 
to  be  the  case.  Upon  two  sides  and  part  of  the 
third  there  is  a  ditch,  which  contains  water  but 
is  formidable  neither  in  width  nor  in  depth.  On 
the  north  and  north-eastern  aspects,  where  the  wall 
is  situated  upon  the  high  bank  of  the  river,  it  is  not 
continued. 

Girishk,  as  also  Farah,  comes  within  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  officials  of  Kandahar  Province  and  a 
small  garrison  is  detailed  from  Kandahar  itself.  Two 
squadrons  of  cavalry  and  one  battery  of  field  guns 
usually  comprise  the  regular  establishment,  to  which 
is  added  a  certain  militia  strength.  The  soldiers 
camp  outside  the  walls;  the  fort  itself,  which  is  only 
700  feet  in  length  and  250  feet  in  breadth,  being 
the  residence  of  the  Governor  of  Pusht-i-Rud,  the 
name  by  which  the  district  goes.  In  no  sense  can 
the  building  be  regarded  as  possessing  any  military 
value.  The  walls  are  weak  and  exposed  from  their 
parapet  to  their  foundations.  Moreover,  there  is 
cover  close  up  to  them  on  all  sides  except  the  north- 
ern where  a  ravine,  which  would  afford  an  enemy 
protection,  is  enfiladed  from  the  north-west  tower. 
The  setting  of  the  fort  is  quite  picturesque.  In  the 
low-river  lands  on  the  south  side  there  are  charm- 
ing gardens,  but  their  walls  and  trees  are  too  likely 
to  afford  cover  to  troops  to  be  other  than  a  danger. 
In  the  fort  itself  are  two  gateways;  one  of  which,  a 
small  one,  has  been  blocked  up.     The  main  one  is 

158 


KANDAHAR 

at  the  southern  extremity.  There  are  four  corner 
towers  and  the  water-supply  is  rehable  and  drawn 
from  the  river.  But,  equally  with  Farah  and  Sab- 
zawar,  the  fortifications  of  Girishk  need  not  be  the 
subject  of  any  detailed  consideration  here.  Stand- 
ing on  the  main  route  from  Herat  to  Kandahar, 
controlling  the  fords  across  the  Helmund  and  com- 
manding the  road  to  Seistan  from  which  it  is  only 
190  miles  distant,  the  richness  of  the  surrounding 
region  makes  its  early  possession  essential  to  any 
force  operating  from  the  Indo-Afghan  border.  Vil- 
lages are  numerous  and  every  one  is  a  thriving  centre. 
The  pasturage  is  both  fattening  and  abundant, 
while  the  agricultural  capacity  of  the  Zamindawar 
lands  is  well  known.  During  the  last  operations 
in  Afghanistan  4,000,000  lbs.  weight  of  grain  were 
collected  from  the  Girishk  district  by  the  British 
force  that  was  then  in  occupation,  a  return  which 
makes  it  the  most  important  of  any  of  the  bases 
which  might  be  established  on  the  Perso-Afghan 
border. 

Kandahar,  which  is  12.5  miles  from  Quetta  and 
only  65  miles  from  the  railhead  at  New  Chaman, 
is  the  last  place  where  an  army  advancing  from 
Herat  towards  the  Indus  would  halt.  It  also  affords 
access  to  the  Ghazni  and  Kabul  roads  through  the 
Tarnak  Valley,  and  its  proximity  to  the  deserts  of 
Beloochistan  on  the  south  renders  at  least  one  of  its 
flanks  safe  from  being  turned.  It  is  very  accessible 
from  Persia  in  the  west  and  from  India  in  the  east, 
while  it  has  changed  hands  so  frequently  during  the 

159 


AFGHANISTAN 

period  of  its  history  —  Persians,  Usbegs,  Afghans, 
and  in  recent  times  the  EngHsh  —  that  a  further 
change  is  certainly  to  be  anticipated.  Kandahar  is 
situated  between  the  Argand  and  Tarnak  Rivers  on 
a  level  plain  covered  with  cultivation  and  well  pop- 
ulated to  the  south  and  west;  on  the  north-west  a 
low  ridge  rises  to  the  height  of  1000  feet.  The  shape 
of  the  city  is  an  irregular  parallelogram,  the  length 
being  from  north  to  south  with  a  circuit  of  3  miles, 
1006  yards.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  ditch,  24  feet 
wide  and  10  feet  deep,  and  by  a  wall  which  is  20j 
feet  thick  at  the  bottom,  14 J  feet  thick  at  the  top, 
and  27  feet  in  height.  This  wall  is  made  of  mud 
hardened  by  exposure  to  the  sun  and  without  revet- 
ment of  stone  or  brick.  The  length  of  the  western 
face  is  1967  yards,  of  the  eastern  1810  yards,  of  the 
southern  1345  yards,  and  of  the  northern  1164  yards. 
There  are  four  main  gates,  through  which  run  the 
principal  streets  and  two  minor  gates.  The  Bar 
Durani  and  Kabul  are  on  the  eastern  face,  the  Shi- 
karpur  on  the  southern  face,  the  Herat  and  the  Top 
Khana  on  the  w^estern  face,  and  the  Idgah  on  the 
northern  face.  The  Bar  Durani  and  the  Top  Khana 
are  the  minor  gates. 

The  gateways  are  defended  by  six  double  bastions 
and  the  angles  are  protected  by  four  large  circular 
towers.  The  curtains  between  the  bastions  have 
fifty-four  small  bastions  distributed  along  the  faces. 
From  the  Herat  gate  a  street  runs  to  the  Kabul 
gate  through  the  city;  commencing  from  the  Shi- 
karpur  gate  and  crossing  it  at  right  angles  near  the 

160 


KANDAHAR 

centre,  another  leads  to  the  citadel,  which  is  square- 
built  with  walls  260  yards  in  length. 

The  citadel  is  situated  to  the  north  of  the  city  and 
south  of  it  is  the  Top  Khana.  West  of  this  is  the 
tomb  of  Ahmed  Shah  Durani,  an  octagonal  struc- 
ture, overlaid  with  coloured  porcelain  bricks  and 
surmounted  by  a  gilded  dome,  surrounded  by  small 
minarets.  It  towers  above  all  the  adjacent  build- 
ings and  its  dome  attracts  attention  to  the  city  from 
a  distance.  The  pavenient  of  the  tomb  is  carpeted 
and  an  embroidered  cloak  is  thrown  over  the  sar- 
cophagus. The  sepulchre  itself,  composed  of  a 
coarse  stone  from  the  mountains  near  Kandahar, 
is  inlaid  with  wreaths  of  flowers  in  coloured  marble. 
Twelve  lesser  tombs,  which  are  those  of  the  children 
of  Ahmed  Shah,  are  ranged  near  the  resting-place 
of  the  father.  The  interior  walls  are  painted  in 
designs  similar  to  those  which  adorn  the  exterior, 
but  the  execution  is  more  regular  and  the  colours, 
having  been  less  exposed,  are  fresher  and  more  bril- 
liant. The  lofty  dome  above  the  centre  imparts  an 
air  of  grandeur  to  the  little  temple,  while  its  windows 
of  stone  trellis  work  admit  a  subdued  and  pleasant 
light.  The  tomb  is  engraved  with  passages  from  the 
Koran  and  a  copy  of  the  sacred  volume,  from  which 
the  Mullahs  recite  passages,  is  kept  in  the  sanctuary. 

At  the  point  where  the  streets  from  Herat  gate 
and  the  Shikarpur  gate  meet,  is  the  Charsu,  a  large 
dome  50  yards  in  diameter.  Here,  as  in  other  parts 
of  the  city,  are  public  "humams"  or  warm  baths, 
where  a  course  of  Asiatic  massage,  including  bath- 

161 


AFGHANISTAN 

as  the  population  increases  and  diminishes,  depend- 
ing upon  whether  the  local  government  were  pro- 
tective or  oppressive.  When  Kandahar  was  visited 
by  Elphinstone,  he  calculated  its  population  at 
100,000.  Hough  reported  it  at  80,000,  Masson  from 
25,000  to  30,000,  Ferrier  30,000,  Court  25,000,  and 
Bellew  15,500.  Holdich,  writing  in  1880,  put  the 
strength  of  the  Duranis,  Ghilzais,  Parsiwans,  and 
Kakuris  alone  at  30,000.  In  recent  years  Kandahar 
has  prospered.  As  there  has  been  but  little  to  dis- 
turb the  development  of  its  trade  and  the  general 
settlement  of  the  immediate  vicinity,  it  is  possible 
that  it  may  have  reached  the  present  high  figure. 

As  in  most  Asiatic  cities  the  different  trades  occupy 
special  parts  of  the  Kandahar  bazaars.  In  all  there 
are  3700  shops  in  addition  to  the  stalls  of  the  way- 
side pedlars.  These,  their  goods  spread  upon  the 
ground  or  displayed  upon  small  tables,  not  infre- 
quently act  as  agents  of  the  more  important  mer- 
chants. There  are,  too,  certain  street  musicians  and 
strolling  players.  The  premises  of  the  cloth  mer- 
chants extend  down  the  east  side  of  the  Shikarpur 
Bazaar;  and  facing  them  are  the  saddlers  and  the 
smiths.  From  the  Charsu  towards  the  Kabul  gate, 
to  the  north  of  the  Kabul  Bazaar,  are  the  Hindoo 
bankers.  In  the  opposite  direction,  on  the  north 
of  the  Herat  Bazaar,  are  the  coppersmiths ;  and  con- 
fronting them  are  the  tailors  and  the  shoemakers. 
At  the  north  end  of  the  Shahi  Bazaar  is  the  grass 
market,  and  next  to  it,  on  the  north-east,  the  cattle 
market.     The  Shikarpur  Bazaar  is  the  popular  and 

164 


KANDAHAR 

central  meeting-place;  but  each  of  the  four  principal 
streets  of  Kandahar  is  thronged  between  sunrise  and 
sunset.  Almost  without  cessation  is  the  movement 
of  the  mass  of  people:  some  riding,  many  walking, 
others  proceeding  to  and  from  the  markets  leading 
camels,  driving  ponies,  or  themselves  carrying  loads. 
Women  are  rarely  seen;  but  from  beyond  the  Indian 
border  or  from  out  of  the  heart  of  Afghanistan 
there  are  traders,  travellers,  and  fakirs.  Arrayed 
in  various  colours,  though  all  assume  the  Afghan 
dress,  they  are  only  distinguished  from  each  other 
by  the  forms  of  their  head-dress.  Their  beards  are 
black  and  bushy;  but  w^here  age  has  made  its  appear- 
ance the  w^hite  hairs  are  dyed  red  with  the  juice  of 
the  henna.  A  few  are  shaven  and  habited  in  jackets 
and  trousers  of  blue  linen  or  tunics  of  drab  cloth 
with  pendant  sleeves,  their  heads  being  protected  by 
cotton  skull-caps.  This  latter  type  belongs  usually 
to  some  trans-border  region.  Others  wear  cloaks 
made  up  in  chintz  or  in  the  woollen  cloth  of  the 
country,  with  turbans  of  very  ample  fold.  The  con- 
stant bustle  of  the  streets  produces  considerable  con- 
fusion around  the  stalls,  while  the  shouts  of  the 
caravan  leaders  and  the  sickly  whining  of  the  street 
beggars  add  to  the  uproar.  Mendicity  is  to  be  seen 
in  its  most  loathsome  and  repulsive  forms.  The 
blind,  the  maimed,  and  deformed,  ragged  and  un- 
speakably squalid  men,  women,  and  children  not 
only  stand  and  sit,  but  lie  grovelling  in  the  dust  or 
mire  under  the  feet  of  the  crowd. 

The  Hindoos  are  the  most  numerous  as  well  as 

165 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  wealthiest  mcrcliants  in  the  city.  They  carry 
on  a  very  profitable  trade  with  Bombay,  rid  Shikar- 
pur  and  Karachi.  They  import  silks,  calicoes,  mus- 
lins, chintzes,  merinoes,  woollen  and  broad  cloths, 
leather,  iron,  copper,  knives,  scissors,  needles,  thread, 
and  paper  from  England;  indigo,  spices,  sugar, 
medicines,  salt  from  India;  shawls,  postins,  shoes, 
opium,  silks,  and  carpets  from  Meshed.  Kandahar 
exports  to  India  and  the  Persian  Gulf  madder,  assa- 
foetida,  goat's-hair,  camel's-w^ool,  preserved  fruits, 
quince  seeds,  pomegranate  rinds,  tobacco,  felts,  raw 
silk,  rosaries;  horses,  baggage  ponies,  Biran  carpets, 
copper  utensils,  and  silk  are  contributed  by  Persia. 
The  trade  between  Kandahar,  Herat,  and  Meshed 
is  conducted  principally  by  Persians,  who  bring  down 
silk,  raw  and  manufactured,  copper  utensils,  guns, 
daggers,  swords,  precious  stones  (turquoise),  bro- 
cade, gold  and  silver  braiding,  horses  and  carpets; 
they  take  back  wool,  felts,  postins,  and  skins. 

Kandahar  city  is  by  far  the  most  important  trade 
centre  in  Afghanistan,  the  customs  and  town  dues 
together  equalling  the  land  revenues  of  the  province. 
These  several  sources  of  income,  of  course,  go  some 
way  towards  meeting  the  expenses  of  the  Central 
Government.  There  are  few  manufactures  or  indus- 
tries of  importance  that  are  peculiar  to  the  city; 
the  principal  trade  of  a  local  description  is  the  pro- 
duction of  silk,  felt,  and  rosaries  of  soft  crystallised 
silicate  of  magnesia,  which  is  found  near  the  city. 
The  description  of  these  trades  will  be  found  in  a 
further  chapter. 

166 


KANDAHAR 

Certain  articles  have  been  withdrawn  from  expor- 
tation by  order  of  the  Governor  of  Kandahar,  but 
before  this  occurred  the  following  taxes  were  levied: 
on  wheat,  barley,  atta,  and  rice  eight  annas  per  don- 
key-load or  one  rupee  per  camel -load;  ghee,  5  rupees 
per  maund;  oil  was  mulcted  in  a  sixth  part.  The 
kidney-fat  of  every  sheep  or  goat  slaughtered  is  a 
Government  perquisite  and  is  sent  to  the  Amir's 
soap  manufactory,  where  it  is  made  after  the  most 
economical  principles  into  a  coarse  description  of 
soap.  Each  shop  pays  a  tax  of  one  and  a  half 
Kandahari  rupees  'per  mensem.  Saids,  mullahs,  and 
a  few  others  are  exempted. 

The  returns  from  taxes  assessed  on  the  various 
crafts  give: 

RS.    PER   ANNTJM  RS.    PER   ANXUM 

Dyers   1500  Silk-weavers   3500 

Tanners    4000  Gram-dealers    1250 

Cap  and  postin-makers .  .  .   600  Capitation  tax    3000 

Butchers 700  Cattle  markets     2500 

Gaming  houses   2500 

while  bakers  have  to  present  annually  to  the  Governor 
thirty  Kandahari  maunds  of  bread. 

The  Saids  of  Peshin,  Kakuris,  Baklitiaris,  and  the 
Beloochis  are  the  tribes  principally  engaged  in  horse 
dealing.  This  trade  flourishes  for  six  months  in  the 
year;  but  it  is  stagnant  during  the  hot  weather  and 
in  the  winter,  when  the  roads  are  closed  by  snow. 
About  2000  or  3000  horses  are  said  to  pass  through 
the  city  annually.  The  chief  breeding  districts 
drawn  on  by  these  traders  are  Sarakhs,  Maimana, 
Nur,  and  Kala  Nau  in  the  Hazara  country;  Daria 

167 


AFGHANISTAN 

Gaz  and  Kelati-i-Nadiri  in  Persia;  Gulza  and  Firoz- 
koh  in  Herat  Province.  Of  these  the  horses  from 
Sarakhs,  Nur,  and  Gulza  are  most  prized,  realising 
locally  between  60  and  120  rupees.  An  export  duty 
between  15  to  30  rupees  was  originally  levied  against 
each  animal.  To  escape  this  tax  traders  frequently 
took  the  desert  routes,  but  the  trade  is  now  pro- 
hibited. The  cows  of  Kandahar  and  Seistan  are  in 
general  request;  they  are  said  to  give  twenty  seers 
of  milk  each  per  diem,  being  milked  three  times  in 
twenty-four  hours.  They  fetch  about  40  rupees 
each.  Camels  are  anything  but  plentiful  in  the  Kan- 
dahar district;  and  the  supply  is  scarcely  adequate 
to  meet  the  demands  of  the  trading  population. 
Many  are  imported  from  Beloochistan,  the  prices 
varying  from  20  to  100  rupees. 

The  Saids  of  Peshin  and  others  formerly  conducted 
a  more  or  less  profitable  traffic  in  slaves  in  Western 
Afghanistan,  some  four  or  five  hundred  being  sold 
annually  in  Kandahar.  A  few  of  these  unfortunates 
were  purchased  in  Seistan,  but  most  of  them  were 
kidnapped  from  elsewhere.  Slavery  in  Afghanistan, 
however,  was  abolished  by  Abdur  Rahman  in  1895, 
the  Russian  and  India  Governments  mutually  co- 
operating in  its  prevention.  Very  few  slaves  were 
Persian  born,  the  several  regions  of  Afghanistan 
supplying  their  ow^n  superfluous  human  beings. 
Hazara  furnished  a  large  quota,  frequently  in  lieu 
of  arrears  of  revenue  or  when  there  was  difiiculty 
in  realising  Government  assignments  against  the 
different  villages.     The  value  of  slaves  fluctuated 

168 


KANDAHAR 

according  to  the  price  of  food;  during  seasons  of 
abundance  high  prices  were  obtained,  but  in  any 
period  of  scarcity  slaves  were  a  drug  in  the  market. 

The  cHmate  of  Kandahar  is  charming  in  the  winter, 
but  the  spring  is  considered  the  most  pleasant  time. 
Barren  parched  hills  lie  close  to  the  city  on  the  north 
and  west;  the  heat  radiating  from  them  is  such  that 
the  winds  are  hot  and  parching.  The  temperature 
of  the  thermometer  varies  greatly  between  morning 
and  the  middle  of  the  day  —  sometimes  as  much  as 
40  or  50  degrees. 

In  winter,  composed  of  the  months  of  Decem- 
ber, January,  and  February,  the  weather  is  cloudy, 
with  storms,  snow,  sleet,  and  rain.  The  wind  varies 
between  all  the  points  of  the  compass,  seldom  for 
long  blowing  from  one  direction.     Frosts  are  severe. 

In  spring,  made  up  of  the  months  of  March,  April, 
and  May,  the  weather  is  fair  but  cloudy.  Occa- 
sional rain  falls;  and  there  are  thunder-storms  dur- 
ing the  first  half  of  the  season,  in  which  also  the 
nights  are  cold  and  very  frosty.  In  the  latter  half 
of  this  quarter  the  weather  becomes  warmer,  dews 
fall  at  night,  and  dust-storms  occur  infrequently. 
The  wind  is  westerly  and  south-westerly,  but  high 
easterly  winds  prevail  in  March. 

During  the  months  of  June,  July,  August,  and  part 
of  September  the  hot  season  obtains,  commencing 
about  June  20  and  continuing  until  September  20. 
It  comprises  two  periods  of  forty  days  each,  sep- 
arated by  an  intervening  fortnight  of  cloudy  and 
cooler  weather,  during  which  thunder-storms  occur 

169 


AFGHANISTAN 

in  the  mountains,  though  rain  rarely  falls  on  the 
plain.  The  most  prevalent  wind  during  the  sum- 
mer blows  from  the  west  during  the  day,  but  during 
the  night  and  until  the  sun  has  been  *'up"  a  couple 
of  hours  it  emanates  from  the  opposite  direction. 
Dust-storms  are  frequent  and  severe. 

The  wind,  during  the  autumn  in  the  evening  and 
in  the  early  morning,  blows  in  warm  unrefreshing 
gusts,  heated  by  passing  over  the  many  bare  rocky 
ranges  which  serve  simply  to  reflect  the  sun.  Dur- 
ing these  months,  part  of  September,  October,  and 
November,  the  sun  is  still  powerful.  Occasional 
dust-storms  occur,  and  there  is  cloudy  weather  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  season.  The  dews  are  heavy; 
little  rain  falls  and  high  north-easterly  and  north- 
westerly winds  prevail  at  the  close  of  the  season. 

Of  diseases  that  may  be  attributed  to  the  Kanda- 
har climate,  the  most  prominent  are  intermittent 
and  remittent  fevers,  whilst  continued  fevers  and 
small-pox,  although  met  with  only  in  a  sporadic 
form,  are  epidemic  in  certain  seasons.  The  first- 
named  maladies  are  prevalent  throughout  the  year; 
although  more  active  in  the  spring  and  autumn 
when  they  are  remarkable  for  the  frequency  of  the 
tertian  form. 

Ophthalmic  complaints  are  numerous,  although 
not  altogether  attributable  to  the  climate.  Rheu- 
matism, neuralgic  affections,  scrofula,  syphilis,  and 
certain  cerebral  disturbances  are  common. 


170 


CHAPTER  XII 


S  EI  ST  AN 


WESTWARDS  of  the  Kandahar  district 
is  the  region  of  Seistan,  to  which  unu- 
sual political  interest  attaches.  Roughly- 
speaking,  it  is  divided  between  Persia  and  Afghani- 
stan, the  Helmund  River  demarcating  the  mutual 
spheres  of  interest  and  occupation.  Geographically, 
it  belongs  to  the  watershed  of  Afghanistan.  Its 
extensive  areas,  situated  along  the  borders  of  Af- 
ghanistan, Persia,  and  Beloochistan,  are  drained  by 
the  Hamun  Lake,  which  also  receives  the  waters 
of  the  Helmund,  Farah,  Khash,  and  Harud  Rivers. 
The  area  of  this  depression,  which  is  broken  up  into 
three  subsidiary  basins  —  those  of  the  Farah,  the 
Helmund,  and  the  Zirreh  —  is  125,000  square  miles. 
The  first  of  these  consists  of  the  two-fold  lagoon 
formed  by  the  Harud  and  Farah  Rivers  flowing  from 
the  north,  and  by  the  Helmund  and  the  Khash  or 
Kushk  Rud  flowing  from  the  south  and  east  respec- 
tively. These  are  connected  by  a  thick  reed-bed 
called  the  Naizar,  which,  according  to  the  amount 
of  water  that  the  lakes  contain,  is  either  a  marsh 
or  a  cane-brake.  In  flood-time  these  waters,  ordi- 
narily distinct,  unite  to  pour  over  the  Naizar  into 

171 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  second  great  depression,  known  by  the  generic 
title  of  Ilamiin  Lake.  In  times  of  abnormal  flood  the 
Ilamun  will  itself  overflow.  On  such  occasions  the 
water,  draining  southwards  through  the  Sarshela 
ravine,  inundates  the  third  depression,  which  is 
known  as  the  Gaud-i-Zirreh.  The  Hamun  Lake,  like 
the  Gaud-i-Zirreh,  is  one  of  those  seasonable  phe- 
nomena which  are  invariably  met  in  regions  where  the 
water  system  is  irregular.  At  certain  periods  quite 
dry,  at  others  it  possesses  a  measurement  of  100 
miles  in  length,  15  miles  in  breadth,  with  a  mean 
depth  of  4  feet  and  a  maximum  of  10  feet.  The 
waters  of  the  Hamun  are  sw^eet.  Fish  are  very  plenti- 
ful, providing  food  for  an  aboriginal  colony  which 
frequents  the  lake.  It  is,  also,  the  haunt  of  many 
varieties  of  wild  geese,  duck,  and  other  water-fowl. 

It  is  better,  before  proceeding  to  study  further  the 
value  of  Seistan,  to  describe  exactly  of  what  Seis- 
tan  consists.  Sir  Frederic  Goldsmid,  for  purposes  of 
more  accurate  definition  of  the  region,  divided  its 
areas  into  two  parts:  Seistan  Proper  and  Outer  Seis- 
tan. In  this  he  may  be  said  to  have  given  Seistan 
Proper  to  Persia  and  Outer  Seistan  to  Afghanistan. 
The  former  lies  between  the  Naizar  on  the  north 
and  the  main  lateral  canal,  which  waters  the  lands 
around  Sekuha  and  the  neighbouring  villages  on  the 
south.  It  extends  along  the  old  bed  of  the  Helmund, 
from  a  mile  above  the  dam  at  Kohak,  to  its  mouth 
on  the  east,  and  to  the  fringe  of  the  Hamun  and  the 
Kuh-i-Khwajah  on  the  west.  The  population  num- 
bers 45,000,  of  whom  10,000  were  nomads  of  mixed 

172 


SEISTAN 

descent.  Of  the  larger  total,  20,000  are  returned  as 
Seistanis  and  15,000  as  Persian-speaking  settlers,  the 
average  number  of  persons  to  the  square  mile  being 
roughly  15  —  figures  which  are  eight  times  in  ex- 
cess of  the  proportional  result  found  elsewhere  in 
Persia.  Outer  Seistan  comprises  the  country  stretch- 
ing along  the  right  bank  of  the  Helmund,  from  its 
lake  mouth  on  the  north  to  Rudbar  in  the  south. 
The  inhabitants  are  Seistanis,  Beloochi  nomads,  and 
Afghans,  together  with  a  certain  proportion  of  San- 
juranis  and  Joktis  —  the  term  Seistani  applying  par- 
ticularly to  that  portion  of  the  inhabitants  possessing 
permanent  settlements,  irrespective  of  descent  and 
nationality.  The  combined  areas  of  the  Seistan  ba- 
sin aggregate  some  7006  square  miles  and  the  joint 
population  is  returned  at  205,000,  or  34  to  the 
square  mile. 

It  is  the  Helmund  River,  the  chief  tributary  to  the 
Hamun,  that  has  been  the  greatest  obstacle  to  the 
successful  demarcation  of  the  Seistan  region.  Hith- 
erto the  boundary  defining  the  respective  limits  of 
the  two  States  has  been  the  one  arranged  in  1872  by 
the  Goldsmid  Award.  Under  that  instrument  a  line 
was  drawn  from  Siah-koh  to  where  the  then  main  bed 
of  the  Helmund  River  entered  the  Naizar  swamp. 
The  frontier  then  proceeded  to  Kohak.  From  this 
point  it  followed  a  south-westerly  direction  to  Koh- 
i-Malik-i-Siah,  thus  leaving  the  two  banks  of  the 
Helmund  below  Kohak  to  Afghanistan.  Since  then 
the  Helmund  has  changed  its  course,  and  in  that 
portion  of  the  frontier  which  was  affected  by  the 

173 


AFGHANISTAN 

vagaries  of  the  stream,  considerable  confusion  arose, 
while  local  Perso-Afghan  relations  became  very  much 
inflamed.  The  question  as  between  the  two  races 
depended  upon  the  future  division  of  the  new  bed  of 
the  Helmund,  the  point  of  dispute  dealing  specifi- 
cally with  the  divergence  of  the  main  stream  from 
the  channel  which  was  selected  as  the  frontier  line 
by  the  Mission  of  1872.  The  Afghans,  who  w^ere 
the  principal  gainers  by  the  alteration  of  the  course 
of  the  river,  claimed  that  the  new  bed  formed  the 
frontier:  the  Persians,  on  the  other  hand,  endeav- 
oured to  maintain  the  strict  interpretation  of  the 
old  agreement. 

Unfortunately  Seistan  possessed  interest  for  others 
than  those  who  were  dependent  upon  the  course  of 
the  Helmund,  and  Russia  had  already  secured  the 
Shah's  assent  to  the  appointment  of  a  Russian  con- 
sul at  Nasratabad.  As  soon  as  the  dispute  promised 
local  unpleasantness  between  Persia  and  Afghani- 
stan and  political  difficulties  for  Great  Britain  with 
Teheran,  this  individual,  M.  Miller,  interfered.  Ex- 
claiming against  the  presumption  of  the  Afghans, 
he  offered  to  provide  a  force  to  resist  their  so-called 
aggression.  Before  matters  had  reached  the  crisis 
which  would  have  made  Russian  interference  possi- 
ble, the  Shah,  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the 
Treaty  of  Paris,  requested  the  British  Government 
to  arbitrate  on  the  question  of  the  Helmund  waters 
and,  at  the  same  time,  to  establish  a  permanent 
boundary  line  in  place  of  the  vague  provisions  made 
by  the  Goldsmid  Mission. 

174 


SEISTAN 

In  agreeable  accord  with  this  request  the  Imperial 
Government  at  the  end  of  1902  appointed  as  British 
Commissioner,  Major  McMahon,  who  had  already 
demarcated  the  whole  of  the  southern  boundary  of 
Afghanistan  —  a  distance  of  800  miles.  It  so  hap- 
pened that  his  new  duties  commenced  at  Koh-i- 
Malik-i-Siah,  the  point  at  which  his  former  work 
finished.  The  mission  consisted  of  11  British  offi- 
cers, numerous  survey  and  irrigation  experts,  an 
escort  of  200  native  infantry,  60  cavalry,  with  a 
large  supply  of  transport,  including  the  58th  Camel 
Corps  —  in  all  a  total  of  1500  men,  200  horses,  and 
2200  camels.  As  the  base  was  at  Quetta,  500  miles 
across  an  almost  waterless  desert,  whence  all  stores 
except  grain  and  fodder  and  a  few  local  commodi- 
ties had  to  be  imported,  the  task  of  feeding  the  mis- 
sions can  be  well  appreciated.  Starting  from  Quetta, 
the  mission  proceeded  through  Afghan  territory  to 
Khwaja-ali  on  the  Helmund  and  then  followed  the 
river,  with  the  object  of  commencing  work  in  the 
middle  of  the  boundary.  This  march  of  500  miles 
over  uninhabited  waterless  country  occupied  five 
weeks.  The  temperature  was  very  low,  with  the 
thermometer  at  four  degrees  above  zero;  and  fright- 
ful blizzards  were  encountered.  During  this  period 
three  men  were  frozen  to  death  and  a  number  of  ani- 
mals lost.  On  reaching  Seistan,  Colonel  ^IcMahon 
was  met  by  the  Afghan  Commissioner  and  by  two 
Persian  Commissioners,  each  with  a  large  escort. 
The  Amir,  who  was  known  personally  to  the  British 
Commissioner,  kindly  despatched  from  Kandahar  for 

175 


AFGHANISTAN 

his  private  protection  a  force  of  100  cavalry  and  200 
infantry. 

Political  difficulties  for  the  mission  commenced  at 
the  very  outset.  Attempting  to  cross  into  Persian 
Seistan  it  was  refused  admission  by  the  Persians,  who 
had  been  thoroughly  frightened  by  Russian  misrep- 
resentation as  to  its  object.  The  cool  assertion  was 
made  that  no  boundary  was  in  dispute,  and  that  any 
attempt  to  pass  into  Persian  territory  would  be  met 
by  force.  For  a  whole  month  the  mission  contented 
itself  with  travelling  along  the  Afghan  side  of  the 
Helmund,  collecting  information  in  regard  to  the 
frontier  line.  Throughout  this  time  there  was]  no 
meeting  with  the  Persian  officials.  Further  work 
at  last  necessitated  an  entry  into  Persian  territory. 
Notwithstanding  Persia's  protests  and  her  objection 
to  the  erection  of  a  bridge  for  the  purpose  of  crossing 
the  Helmund,  the  mission  crossed,  receiving  the  cus- 
tomary compliments  and  being  welcomed  with  bands 
and  guards  of  honour. 

The  actual  work  of  demarcation  was  very  diflB- 
cult.  South  of  the  Helmund  for  90  miles  the  line 
lay  through  an  arid  desert  where  water  was  brought 
from  long  distances.  North  of  this  section  the 
boundary  traversed  country  liable  to  inundation  in 
which  pillars  of  a  massive  permanent  nature  had 
to  be  erected,  while  the  last  20  miles  of  the  frontier 
ran  up  the  waterless,  glacial  slopes  of  the  Siah-koh. 
By  the  decision  agreed  upon,  the  old  bed  of  the  Hel- 
mund was  retained  as  the  new  frontier,  the  present 
boundary  being  so  fixed  that  it  continues  irrespective 

176 


SEISTAN 

of  further  changes  in  the  course  of  the  river.  This 
arrangement  reconstitutes  the  1872  Hne.  Consider- 
able delay  marked  its  acceptance  both  in  Kabul  and 
Teheran,  the  findings  being  delivered  in  April,  1904. 
Demarcation  work,  proceeding  in  accordance  with 
McMahon's  report,  was  not  completed  until  the  close 
of  1904,  by  which  time  Persian  objections  to  the 
decision  upon  the  boundary  had  been  overcome,  the 
first  part  of  the  work  of  the  mission  being  settled 
absolutely  when  the  final  adhesion  of  the  two  Gov- 
ernments to  the  verdict  of  the  mission  was  notified 
in  September,  1904.  The  appropriation  of  the  Hel- 
mund  waters  between  Persia  and  Afghanistan  was 
the  second  part  of  the  business  of  the  mission.  The 
difficulties  of  the  question  were  increased  by  Russian 
exertions  to  thwart  a  satisfactory  solution.  Never- 
theless, after  most  scrupulous  pains  and  exhaustive 
inquiries  into  existing  rights  and  practice,  the  Com- 
missioners' award  upon  partition  of  the  waters  was 
handed,  in  May,  1905,  to  the  Persian  and  Afghan 
representatives  for  communication  to  their  respec- 
tive Governments.  The  Amir  of  Afghanistan  at  once 
accepted  the  judgment  of  Colonel  McMahon  while 
the  people  on  the  spot  also  warmly  espoused  the  set- 
tlement. But  Persia,  inspired  by  the  laboured  con- 
coctions of  the  Russian  officials  in  Teheran,  refused 
to  ratify  the  protocol  and,  after  great  delay,  con- 
firmed her  dissatisfaction  at  the  distribution  of  the 
waters  by  direct  representations  to  the  British  Min- 
ister at  Teheran.  Unhappily  on  February  2G,  1900, 
in  spite  of   previous  official   intimations   from   the 

177 


AFGHANISTAN 


Foreign  Office  that  Persia  had  acquiesced  in   the  , 

results  of  the  mission,  the  Shah's  Government  for-  i 

mally  notified  Sir  Edward  Grey  of  its  inabihty  to  | 

accept  and  consequent  rejection  of  the  decision  in 
respect  of  the  McMahon  division  of  the  waters  of  . 

the  Helmund.    In  a  similar  manner,  Persia  appealed  i 

against  the  decision  of  the  Goldsmid  Mission  with 
the  result  that  its  original  terms  were  confirmed. 
No  genuine  objection  exists  in  this  instance. 

The  trials  of  the  mission  in  Seistan  were  of  a  dis- 
tinctly unpleasant  order.     During  the  winter  1904-  1 
1905  the  jackals,  with  which  the  district  abounds, 
for  some  unknown  cause  went  mad,  attacking  men 
and  animals.    Four  members  of  the  mission  were  bit- 
ten, one  of  whom  died  of  hydrophobia.     The  disease 
also  spread  to  the  wolves,  who  played  great  havoc. 
One  wild  night,  March  25,  1905,  during  a  blizzard  i 
blowing  at  a  velocity  of  88  miles  an  hour,  two  mad 
wolves  raided  the  lines  of  the  Camel  Corps  and  wor-  , 
ried  seventy-eight  camels  and  one  horse.    Forty-eight             \ 
of  the  camels  and  the  horse  died  of  hydrophobia.  i 
On  another  occasion  a  horde  of  these  creatures  tried              ] 
unsuccessfully  to  rush  the  main  camp.     The  Seistanis              j 
themselves  were  so  overcome  by  terror  that  they              j 
actually  killed  off  all  but  a  few  of  their  dogs  on  whom              j 
they  depend  for  safety  and  security  at  night.                          j 

One  of  the  most  tragic  experiences  was  the  death  \ 

of  an  Indian  surveyor  w^hile  on  duty  in  the  water- 
less Dasht-i-Margo.    He  ventured  too  far  from  water  | 
and,  owing  to  the  intense  heat,  was  unable  either  to 
move  forward  or  to  retrace  his  steps.    He  and  seven  ; 

178 


SEISTAN 

of  his  followers  paid  the  penalty  with  their  lives. 
This  incident  was  marked  by  the  heroism  of  one  of 
his  men  who,  seeing  the  surveyor  die,  determined  to 
rescue  the  map,  to  secure  which  so  many  lives  had 
been  given.  He  cut  it  off  from  the  board  of  the 
plane  table,  and,  knowing  that  he  could  not  long 
retain  consciousness,  wound  it  under  his  waistcloth 
round  his  body.  Then  he  blindly  started  northward 
in  the  hope  of  reaching  water.  The  four  men  who 
commenced  this  journey  with  him  collapsed,  he 
himself  remembers  no  more  than  regaining  conscious- 
ness at  night-time  lying  by  a  pool  in  the  Krash 
River.  Here  he  was  found  by  a  wandering  Afghan, 
who  carried  him  on  his  back  to  a  native  village 
where,  after  receiving  careful  attention,  his  life  was 
saved.  The  bodies  of  his  unfortunate  companions 
were  subsequently  discovered  in  a  completely  mum- 
mified condition. 

Seistan  resembles  other  parts  of  Central  Asia  and 
almost  every  centre  of  importance  in  Afghanistan, 
insomuch  that  its  existence  depends  upon  irrigation. 
The  canals  which  branch  off  from  the  Helmund, 
bearing  the  waters  of  that  river  throughout  the  heart 
of  the  country,  date  back  to  a  period  which  itself 
is  long  prior  to  either  Persian  or  Afghan  conquest. 
The  systems  in  vogue  to-day  are  hardly  an  improve- 
ment upon  those  earlier  waterworks;  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  region  might  be  made  the  centre  of  an 
exceptionally  fertile  oasis  if  there  were  any  enduring 
qualities  in  the  local  government,  security  for  trade, 
or  opening  for  agricultural  activity.     Life  in  Seistan 

179 


AFGHANISTAN 

does  not  entail  elaborate  preparations.  Provisions 
are  cheap;  and  sheep  and  oxen  are  abundant.  Rice 
comes  from  Herat,  vegetables  are  scarce,  while  wheat 
and  barley  may  be  purchased  in  large  quantities. 

The  feature  of  Seistan  is  the  Helmund.  Indeed, 
this  region  is  as  dependent  upon  the  Helmund  as 
Egypt  is  upon  the  Nile,  and  in  recent  years  agricul- 
tural conditions  have  much  improved.  The  gross 
revenue  is  now  100,000  kharwars  of  grain,  with  an 
additional  7100  tomans  as  the  value  of  other  prod- 
ucts. Of  this  latter  return  the  Amir  of  Seistan 
takes  one-fifth,  1420  tomans;  with  levies  upon  for- 
age and  firewood  from  each  village  and  the  proceeds 
from  the  sales  of  permits  to  collect  taxes  on  cows  and 
sheep,  the  cash  revenue  amounts  to  14,095  tomans. 
The  tax  on  cows  is  2 J  krans  per  100  cows,  and  the 
impost  on  sheep  1  kran  for  20  sheep.  There  is  no 
levy  on  ploughing  bullocks.  Of  the  100,000  khar- 
wars of  grain  the  Amir  receives  30,000  kharwars  at 
the  value  of  5  tomans  per  kharwar.  The  net  receipts 
are,  therefore,  164,095,  of  which  the  Persian  Govern- 
ment require  2600  tomans  in  cash  and  24,012  khar- 
wars in  grain,  of  which  9812  kharwars  are  remitted  in 
allowances  to  officials,  priests,  and  troops.  In  place 
of  the  payment  in  grain,  too,  the  Persian  Govern- 
ment usually  accepts  a  cash  equivalent  at  the  rate 
of  7  krans  per  kharwar,  9940  tomans,  the  aggregate 
cash  payment  contributed  by  Seistan  to  Teheran 
amounting  to  12,540  tomans,  or  £2500. 

The  capital  of  Seistan  is  divided  into  two  sections 
—  northern  and  southern ;  although  so  long  the  cen- 

180 


SEISTAN 

tre  of  local  government,  it  reflects  at  first  a  some- 
what cheerless  and  dilapidated  appearance.  The 
absence  of  roads  about  the  city  and  the  generally 
neglected  condition  of  Husseinabad,  the  southern 
town,  set  up  a  feeling  of  disappointment  in  those  who 
see  the  place  for  the  first  time.  Beyond  these  two 
towns  have  sprung  up  in  the  last  few  years  the  neat 
buildings  of  the  British  Consulate,  which  may  be 
said  to  constitute  a  third  part  of  the  capital,  with 
Captain  Macpherson  in  charge  of  Anglo-Indian 
interests.  Separated  from  the  rest  of  the  city  by  a 
broad  stretch  of  level  ground,  some  acres  in  extent,  it 
occupies  an  admirable  site  and  has  the  advantage  of 
room  for  extension,  should  it,  at  any  time,  be  thought 
advisable  to  embark  upon  enlargement.  Between 
two  rows  of  buildings  is  a  wide  space,  more  nearly  a 
square  than  a  street,  at  the  end  of  which  the  Union 
Jack  flies.  Behind  the  main  block  on  the  south  side 
of  the  square  is  a  mosque.  The  principal  premises 
cover  a  space  of  about  150  yards  by  70  yards,  the 
whole  site  consisting  roughly  of  about  13  acres. 
Alongside  the  consulate  stand  the  imposing  premises 
of  the  British  bank,  a  branch  of  the  Imperial  Bank 
of  Persia,  comprising  several  excellent  houses  and  a 
well-kept  garden. 

Husseinabad  is  little  more  than  a  collection 
of  small-domed  mud-houses,  built,  irrespective  of 
ground  plan,  wheresoever  fancy  dictated  and  placed 
in  the  middle  of  a  vast  plain.  Here  and  there  a 
wind-mill  of  curious  shape  —  usually  stationary  in 
the  winter  months,  but  wanting  only  the  fierce  blasts 

181 


AFGHANISTAN 

of  the  Bad-i-sad-o-bist  roz  or  wind  of  120  days,  which 
blows  unceasingly  in  the  summer  months,  to  rouse  it 
to  a  state  of  wild  activity  —  stands  conspicuously 
among  the  surrounding  houses.  Beyond  this  the 
residences  of  the  Russian  Consul  and  the  Chief 
Mullah  are  the  only  other  objects  likely  to  attract 
attention.  The  former,  no  longer  the  largest  house 
in  the  town,  is  also  badly  situated,  being  enclosed  on 
three  sides  by  houses  and  on  the  fourth  by  a  grave- 
yard, which  stretches  from  the  Consulate  to  the  walls 
of  Nasratabad.  The  Russian  Consulate  itself,  a  rect- 
angular building  enclosing  two  courtyards  opening 
into  one  another,  has  been,  in  reality,  converted  from 
native  houses.  It  rejoices  in  an  upper  storey;  a 
cluster  of  domes  —  each  room  possessing  a  separate 
dome  —  forms  the  roof,  above  which  stands  a  sorry- 
looking  flag-staff. 

Nasratabad,  the  northern  town,  though  in  itself 
insignificant,  is  by  far  the  more  imposing  half.  It  is 
surrounded  by  walls  30  feet  in  height,  about  350 
yards  in  length  from  north  to  south  and  400  yards 
from  east  to  west,  with  buttresses  at  intervals  of 
about  40  yards.  An  additional  rectangular  enclo- 
sure projecting  from  the  north-east  corner  contains 
the  arc  or  citadel,  in  which  is  situated  the  palace  of 
the  Amir.  In  the  centre  of  the  southern  wall,  sup- 
ported on  either  side  by  buttresses,  stands  one  of  the 
two  gateways  of  the  city.  From  here  the  central 
street  traverses  the  length  of  the  city,  terminating  in 
a  similar  gateway  in  the  centre  of  the  north  wall. 
Running  all  round  is  a  projected  way  which  is  loop- 

182 


SEISTAN 

holed;  there  is  also  a  deep  ditch,  sometimes  jBlled 
with  water.  The  place  possesses  from  fifty  to  one 
hundred  shops;  with  one  exception  they  are  insig- 
nificant and  mainly  occupied  by  soldiers  who,  during 
their  term  of  service  in  Seistan,  devote  themselves 
to  trade  and  are  scarcely  ever  taken  away  from  the 
fort.  The  open  spaces  in  the  city  have  been  culti- 
vated, and  little  patches  of  grain  may  occasionally 
be  seen.  As  is  always  the  case  with  Persian  towns 
donkeys  are  everywhere  to  the  fore. 

Nasratabad  is  garrisoned  by  two  Kain  regiments,^ 
one  of  which  is  disbanded  at  home,  while  the  other 
supplies  shopkeepers  to  the  capital  in  the  intervals 
of  military  duties.  The  nominal  strength  is  1000, 
but  less  than  800  men  are  mobilised.  They  are 
armed  with  the  useless  jezail,  although  at  Birjand 
there  is  a  store  of  Werndl  rifles ;  they  are  supposed  to 
receive  a  new  uniform  every  second  year.  Service  is 
for  life  and  is  hereditary  in  the  families  supplying  the 
soldiers.  Their  pay  is  twenty  krans  —  twelve  shil- 
lings —  and  seven  and  one-half  mans  of  wheat  yearly; 
on  service  in  Seistan  they  are  given  rations.  As 
may  be  supposed,  they  do  not  constitute  a  formi- 
dable body  of  fighting  men.  In  addition  to  the 
infantry  there  are  twenty  gunners  hailing  from 
Tabriz,  who  hold  a  position  of  which  they  take 
the  fullest  advantage.  They  carry  on  the  business 
of  money-lenders,  charging  500  per  cent,  as  a  min- 
imum! 

It  has  long  been  recognised  in  Seistan  that,  while 

^  "Khurasan  and  Sistan."    Lieutenant-Colonel  C.  E.  Yate. 

183 


AFGHANISTAN 

Indian  commerce  can  achieve  no  compensating  return 
in  the  markets  of  Khorassan  against  the  trade  of 
Russia  and  a  dam  of  prohibitory  tariffs  blocks  any 
little  trickle  from  India  entering  Central  Asia,  some- 
thing might  be  gained  by  concentrating  attention 
upon  Seistan  itself.  Accordingly,  when  in  1896  the 
laying-out  of  a  route  between  Nushki  and  Nasrata- 
bad  was  begun  and  the  construction  of  a  railway 
between  Quetta  and  Nushki  was  mooted,  two  impor- 
tant steps  in  the  right  direction  were  indicated.  The 
distance  from  Quetta  to  Nasratabad  along  the  route 
which  was  adopted  is  565  miles.  The  five  stages  out 
of  Quetta  down  to  Nushki,  a  distance  of  93  miles, 
pass  through  mountainous  country.  The  road  de- 
scends 2564  feet  from  the  Quetta  plateau  to  the 
great  tableland  which  stretches  away  to  Seistan  at  a 
height  of  3000  feet.  Across  it  lies  the  track,  fairly 
level  and  admirably  adapted  for  the  passage  of  cara- 
vans. The  hills  tower  in  rough  fantastic  forms  along 
the  road  to  Nushki,  and  in  crossing  from  valley  to 
valley  vistas  of  the  mountain  scenery  of  Beloochi- 
stan  open  out  in  constant  succession.  The  altitude 
of  the  country  above  the  sea  and  the  dry  bracing 
atmosphere  create,  in  winter,  a  pleasant  feeling  of 
exhilaration.  The  heat  in  summer  is  intense,  but  the 
temperature  varies  between  the  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold. 

The  hills  are  the  great  feature  of  Quetta.  To 
the  east,  within  a  mile  or  tw^o  of  the  bazaar,  the  Mar- 
dar  Range  rises  to  a  height  of  11,000  feet,  forming  a 
splendid  background  to  the  cantonment.     To  the 

184 


SEISTAN 

north,  west,  and  south  the  plain  stretches  out  to  the 
foot  of  the  Zarghim,  Tuckatoo,  and  Chiltan  Hills. 
Bare  and  rugged  are  their  slopes,  for  the  juniper 
groves  are  tucked  away  in  clefts  on  the  hill-sides. 
Chill  and  forbidding  are  their  summits,  save  at  sun- 
set when  they  flush  scarlet  as  sin;  then  deepening 
gradually  to  purple  pale  to  amethyst  as  twilight  falls. 
As  the  night  darkens,  too,  the  fires  of  the  charcoal- 
burners  in  the  juniper  valleys   flash  out,  and  the 
lowing  of  cattle  from  a  distant  bazaar  reverberates 
in  the  still  air.     The  atmosphere  is  very  clear  and 
distances  are  most  deceptive.     Dust-storms  are  fre- 
quent and  the  tiny  dust-devil  may  be  seen  across  the 
plain  twirling  rapidly  in  the  radiant  sunlight.    Near 
Quetta  there  are  a  few  mud-walled  villages.     They 
contain  mostly  a  mixed  population,  the  Beloochis 
proper  being  nomads  and  living  in  black  blanket- 
tents.     Even  of  these  there  are  very  few  except  at 
harvest  time,  when  beside  every  threshing-floor,  dot- 
ted amongst  the  golden  mounds  of  bhusa,  are  ragged 
shelters.     Each  tent  is  composed  simply  of  a  couple 
of  coarse  goat's-hair  blankets  stretched,  one  to  the 
windward   and   one    overhead,   across   some   forked 
sticks.     Inside  swarm  a  mass  of  men,  women,  and 
children.     The  women  wear  long-sleeved,  red  cotton 
shirts  reaching  to  the  ankles,  full  cotton  trousers  and 
chaddas  of  indigo  blue  cotton.     They  do  not  appear 
to  veil  themselves  among  their  own  people;  upon  the 
approach  of  the  white  man  a  corner  of  the  chadda  is 
caught  quickly  across  the  mouth.     The  chadda  falls 
straight  down  from  the  crown  of  the  head  to  the  heels 

185 


AFGHANISTAN 

and  the  frayed,  soil-worn  tail  is  left  to  drag  among 
the  dust  heaps.  The  long  black  tresses  of  the  women 
are  thickly  plaited  and  ornamented  with  blue  beads 
and  white  cowries.  Sometimes  a  mass  of  coins  is 
worn  like  a  fringe  over  the  forehead.  Their  shirts 
are  finely  worked  in  green  and  gold  on  the  hems,  at 
the  sleeves,  neck,  skirt,  and  down  the  opening  at  the 
throat  with  the  Russian  cross  stitch. 

The  Beloochi  is  a  wild-looking  man  with  long, 
black,  well-oiled  locks,  which  he  keeps  hanging  in 
heavy  curls  round  his  neck  and  shoulders.  He  wears 
flowing  cotton  trousers,  a  cotton  shirt,  a  waistcoat, 
and  a  variety  of  coats  according  to  his  means.  His 
apparel  is  of  the  dirtiest  and  his  bare  feet  are  thrust 
into  heavy  ammunition  boots  with  never  a  lace  in 
them.  In  spite  of  certain  defects  in  his  attire,  he  is 
a  very  dignified-looking  man  and  a  born  leader  —  of 
camels!  Moreover,  he  does  not  set  too  high  value 
upon  his  women-folk;  labour  is  divided,  and  in 
ploughing  his  wife  and  a  camel  are  usually  harnessed 
together.  The  price  of  a  spouse  is  calculated  in  so 
many  goats,  sheep,  donkeys,  or  camels. 

From  Quetta  a  good  driving  road  runs  as  far  as 
Samungli,  8  miles  distant,  where  there  is  a  small 
caravansary.  From  this  point  a  kutcha  road  bears 
off  south-west  circling  round  the  northern  foot  of 
Chiltan  in  the  valley  of  Girdi  Tallao,  near  the  middle 
of  which  is  the  next  halting-place.  Here  there  is  a 
caravansary  built  in  the  Persian  fashion  —  a  square 
courtyard  with  lean-tos  for  cattle  and  camel-men  and 
in  one  corner  quarters,  consisting  of  a  mud  rez-de- 

186 


SEISTAN 

chaussee  and  a  wooden  chappar  khaneh,  for  travellers 
of  a  better  class. 

From  Girdi  Tallao  the  road  proceeds  to  Tilleri 
through  a  cultivated  valley,  always  bordered  by 
the  bare  hills.  At  Tilleri  there  is  another  rest-house 
built  on  the  same  pattern,  but  possessing  the  luxury 
of  windows  in  the  lower  storey.  After  leaving  Tilleri 
the  road  is  level  for  the  first  few  miles  as  far  as  the 
Sherinab  stream.  It  then  rises  gradually  for  the 
ascent  of  the  Barak  Pass,  where  there  is  a  litter  of 
rubble  and  stones  and  the  ground  is  very  much  bro- 
ken. Beyond  the  pass,  in  the  vicinity  of  Murad  Khan 
Killah,  the  valley  spreads  out  to  a  level  plain  with 
sandy,  well-cultivated  soil  —  for  Beloochistan.  Up 
to  this  point  in  this  stage  there  is  not  a  vestige  of  a 
tree  nor  yet  a  camel-thorn  bush;  even  the  water  is 
brackish.  Moreover,  signs  of  agricultural  activity  do 
not  continue.  Soon  after  leaving  Murad  Khan  the 
route  lies  across  stony,  uneven  ground  until  the  Kish- 
ingi  Valley  is  reached.  Here  the  soil  is  once  more 
sandy;  camel-thorn  abounds,  and  in  spring  there  is  the 
glow  of  crimson  tulips.  Beyond  Kishingi  the  road 
descends  into  the  Nushki  plain  by  a  long  steep  pass. 

It  has  not  been  possible  for  Nushki  to  avoid  the 
prosperity  which  follows  in  the  train  of  the  caravan. 
At  the  present  moment  it  is  an  active  but  unfortu- 
nate settlement.  Built  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  which 
bound  it  on  the  north  and  only  two  or  three  miles 
from  the  range  separating  it  from  Kishingi,  the  winds 
from  the  west,  sweeping  along  the  plain  to  the  hills 
and  then  eddying  back  again  carrying  clouds  of  dust, 

187 


AFGHANISTAN 

catch  Nushki  both  ways.  Although  very  seriously 
exposed  and  lying  on  the  edge  of  the  desert  which 
stretches  away  westwards  to  the  Helmund,  there  are 
evidences  in  the  country  around  of  attempts  at  agri- 
culture. Irrigation  is  practised  and  the  trickle  of 
water  from  the  Kaisar  stream  has  been  augmented 
by  the  careful  sinking  of  wells,  until  the  present 
state  of  Nushki  is  in  near  relation  with  that  which 
seems  to  have  existed  many  generations  ago.  On  the 
top  of  a  low  spur  of  hills  which  runs  south  across  the 
valley,  where  was  once  a  Beloochi  fort,  now  stands 
an  ugly  mud-coloured,  flat-roofed  bungalow,  the  trav- 
ellers' rest-house.  The  hill  on  which  it  is  built  is 
ver^"  stony  and  absolutely  bare  of  vegetation.  On 
its  southern  aspect  is  a  pebbly  water-course  into 
which  the  water,  after  running  close  to  the  bazaar 
and  supplying  two  cattle-fords,  dribbles  scantily. 
The  water-course  is  a  favourite  place  for  the  disposal 
of  dead  camels  and  donkeys;  while  the  unwholesome 
little  river,  the  germ-bearer  of  many  maladies,  serves 
to  turn  three  rather  primitive  water-wheels  for  the 
grinding  of  wheat  and  barley.  In  the  clay  soil  along 
the  edges  of  the  stream  myriads  of  tiny  mauve  irises 
grow  during  spring,  with  here  and  there  scarlet  and 
yellow  tulips. 

The  bazaar  is  somewhat  uninteresting,  for  it  has 
been  built  by  a  British  officer  in  uncompromisingly 
straight  lines.  Of  course  it  is  all  made  of  mud;  the 
roofs  are  flat  and  there  are  no  balconies  or  verandahs 
because  wood  is  scarce.  So  also  there  are  no  white 
Hindoo  temples  and  shady  peepul  trees,  no  domed 

188 


SEISTAN 

mosques  and  stately  arched  gateways,  no  strings  of 
chillies  strung  across  the  shop  fronts  crimsoning  in 
the  sun.  There  is  no  touch  of  colour  anywhere; 
even  the  people  seem  to  be  clad  in  dirty  white  or 
dusty  indigo-blue. 

A  wide  street  leads  through  the  centre  of  the 
bazaar,  and  upon  it  are  set  two  rows  of  one-storey 
mud-shops.  Nearly  all  belong  to  Hindoo  bunnias 
from  Shikarpur.  Their  effects  are  chiefly  sacks  of 
grain  and  Manchester  cotton  goods,  a  few  native- 
made  long  overcoats,  waistcoats  broidered  with  gold 
or  silver  thread,  and  the  peaked  Afghan  kullah  or 
semi-conical  cap,  worn  in  the  centre  of  the  puggaree. 
At  the  end  of  this  thoroughfare  are  the  police  lines, 
post  office,  and  some  attempts  at  a  military  canton- 
ment in  which  the  local  levy  is  quartered.  The  pop- 
ulation is  liable  to  fluctuation.  Three  years  ago 
there  were  250  people  and  rather  more  than  200 
houses,  of  which  120  were  shops;  but  any  estimates 
to-day  w^ould  need  to  be  much  greater,  as  the  num- 
bers of  the  population  have  doubled.  This  increase 
is  due  primarily  to  the  growing  popularity  of  the 
Nushki-Seistan  route  and  an  influx  of  people  who 
were  concerned  in  the  construction  of  the  Quetta- 
Nushki  Railway.  The  completion  of  this  work, 
which  was  opened  to  traffic  on  November  15,  1905, 
when  a  tri-weekly  service  was  initiated,  will  proba- 
bly cause  the  abandonment  of  the  present  position 
which  Nushki  occupies.  The  soil  there  has  been 
infected  by  epidemics  of  cholera,  and  enteric  fever 
is  endemic  among  the  villagers. 

189 


AFGHANISTAN 

The  actual  terminus  of  the  Hne  has  been  placed 
10  miles  farther  on  in  the  open  valley,  where  there 
is  both  water  and  a  better  situation.  There  is  little 
doubt  that  ultimately  the  preference  of  the  caravans 
and  the  merchants  will  be  given  to  the  spot  where 
the  station  premises  are  already  located. 

Work  upon  the  railway  began  in  the  summer  of 
1902,  when  the  difficulties  which  it  presented  were 
not  formidable.  The  cost  of  construction  has  been 
but  little  more  than  half  a  million  sterling.  The 
line,  which  is  83  miles  in  length,  branches  off  from 
the  North-Western  Railway  to  Quetta  above  the 
Bolan  Pass,  3  miles  from  Shezand  station  and  12 
miles  short  of  Quetta  itself,  at  a  height  of  5864  feet. 
The  stations  constructed  on  the  line  are  very  well 
appointed,  far  better  than  those  upon  the  Bolan  or 
Humai  systems.  They  reflect  the  greatest  credit 
on  the  engineers. 

In  general,  Mr.  Woodside  may  be  congratulated 
upon  the  successful  termination  of  his  labours.  Cer- 
tain features  in  the  construction  are  novel  and  create 
a  somewhat  daring  precedent,  as  bridges  have  been 
built  only  over  the  large  streams.  Across  the  smaller 
streams  the  line  runs,  so  that  in  heavy  storms  it  may 
be  washed  away  and  the  service  dislocated.  The 
experiment  may  prove  troublesome,  and  it  will  be 
interesting  to  see  how  the  system  answers ;  with  small 
traflSc  it  may  be  a  success.  For  a  long  time  there 
will  be  little  traflSc  beyond  the  Mastang  district,  al- 
though there  is  likely  to  be  a  large  trade  from  there 
during  the  hot  weather.     The  investigations  of  the 

190 


SEISTAN 

engineers  have  proved  that  in  all  the  valleys  water  is 
everywhere  within  practicable  distance,  under  150 
feet  generally.  Where  there  was  desolation  before, 
and  where  it  was  not  believed  possible  to  find  water, 
plentiful  springs  have  been  tapped. 

Splendid  work  has  been  done  by  two  young  engi- 
neers, fresh  from  Scotland,  Mr.  Slee  and  Mr.  Young. 
In  two  years  or  less  these  young  men  have  learned 
the  languages  generally  spoken  by  the  workmen, 
and  in  dealing  with  the  tribesmen,  who  numbered 
some  thousands,  they  have  had  neither  difficulty 
nor  opposition.  Their  lives  cannot  be  said  to  have 
been  lonely.  Day  and  night  they  were  busy,  orders 
or  instructions  being  incessantly  solicited,  while  their 
words  were  law  in  settling  the  disputes  that  so  fre- 
quently arose  between  the  tribesmen. 

With  the  advent  of  the  railway  to  Nushki,  that 
place  now  becomes  the  starting-point  of  the  great 
Indo-Perso  overland  caravan  route.  Prior  to  1896, 
the  existence  of  certain  questions  of  a  political  nature 
prevented  any  definite  steps  being  taken  towards  the 
construction  of  a  trade-way  between  Seistan  and 
Nushki.  The  Amir  of  Afghanistan,  Abdur  Rahman, 
whose  fiscal  policy  was  well  calculated  to  stifle  trade, 
was  in  occupation  of  the  Chageh  district,  through 
which  lay  the  direct  route  from  Nushki  to  Seistan. 
It  was  eminently  desirable  that  a  change  should  be 
effected  in  the  ownership  of  this  district.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  Agreement  of  1893,  drawn  up  between 
Sir  Mortimer  Durand  and  Abdur  Rahman,  the  Cha- 
geh district  was  assigned  to  the  British  sphere.     In 

191 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  following  years,  1894-1896,  a  Boundary  Commis- 
sion under  Captain  McMahon  occupied  itself  in  de- 
marcating the  frontier  of  Afghanistan  south  of  the 
Helmund  and  up  to  Koh-i-Malik-i-Siah;  in  1895,  by 
agreement  with  the  Shah,  a  second  Commission 
under  Colonel  Holdich  proceeded  to  define  the  Perso- 
Beloochi  frontier  between  Kohak  and  Koh-i-Malik- 
i-Siah  —  a  distance  of  300  miles.  So  soon  as  these 
two  missions  had  completed  their  labours  Captain 
Webb  Ware  was  appointed  the  Assistant  Political 
Officer  and  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  stretch  of 
country  which  had  accrued  to  the  Government  of 
India  as  the  result  of  the  demarcation,  INIajor  Trench 
proceeding  to  Seistan,  Captain  Webb  Ware  at  once 
set  himself  to  w  ork  upon  plans  for  the  creation  of  a 
trade  route  between  Seistan  and  Nushki,  the  good 
fortune  which  had  attended  his  earlier  efforts  being 
carried  a  stage  further  in  1900,  when  the  interests  of 
the  Khan  of  Kelat  in  the  Nushki  district  were  bought 
out  at  a  perpetual  quit-rent  of  9000  rupees  per 
annum.  Success  has  been  pronounced ;  and  both  the 
character  and  complexion  of  this  barren  region  have 
been  transformed.  No  more  difficult  country  could 
have  been  found  for  development.  In  the  days  be- 
fore the  road  was  started  the  region  w^as  the  home  of 
roving  parties  of  Beloochi  and  Afghan  rufiians,  who 
periodically  sallied  forth  to  plunder  passing  caravans. 
Further,  heat,  the  absence  of  water,  and  the  dangers 
of  the  journey  to  India  over  long  desert  stretches 
militated  against  its  adoption.  Only  at  rare  inter- 
vals did  a  caravan  attempt  the  venture. 

192 


SEISTAN 

These  defects  are  now,  in  the  main,  surmounted, 
and  an  excellent  trade  route  is  established  between 
Nushki  and  Nasratabad,  the  marches  being  divided 
into  twenty-one  stages.  Between  Nushki  and  Robat 
a  kutcha  road,  varying  in  breadth  between  10  feet 
and  20  feet,  is  laid  out.  Dak  bungalows  have  also 
been  established  at  regularly  appointed  stations  and 
telegraphic  conmiunications  exist.  Around  the  sev- 
eral bungalows  there  are  now  tiny  settlements  where 
itinerant  traders  exist  on  the  proceeds  of  their  busi- 
ness with  the  caravans.  Marauding  bands  have 
ceased  to  worry,  as  their  leaders  have  been  made  re- 
sponsible for  the  safe  custody  of  travellers  between 
the  different  stages.  At  each  post  there  is  a  small 
levy-guard  and  quarters  for  the  camel-dak,  which 
carries  the  mail  between  India  and  Seistan  in  nine 
and  a  half  days.  Although  it  is  impossible  to  avoid 
the  heat,  the  water  difficulty  is  no  longer  insuper- 
able. Wells  have  been  sunk  and,  since  the  aboli- 
tion of  all  tolls  and  duties  on  the  route  —  which 
wise  precaution  was  made  an  essential  preliminary 
to  the  inauguration  of  the  service  —  an  increasing 
stream  of  camels  pass  to  and  fro,  between  India  and 
Khorassan. 

The  road  follows  two  sides  of  a  triangle,  skirting 
the  whole  of  Southern  Afghanistan  before  entering 
Persia  at  Koh-i-^NIalik-i-Siah.  The  distance  from 
Nushki  to  Koh-i-Malik-i-Siah  and  thence  direct  to 
Meshed  is  just  1000  miles.  To  aid  traders  using  this 
route  a  rebate  of  seven-eighths  of  the  Indian  customs 
duty  is  allowed.     As  the  sea  is  free  to  Bunder  Abbas, 

193 


AFGHANISTAN 

this  concession  should  be  increased  so  that  the  start- 
ing-points of  the  caravans  —  i.e.,  Nushki  and  Bun- 
der Abbas  —  might  be  on  a  footing  of  equaUty. 
"Drawbacks"  of  33  per  cent,  are  granted  by  the 
North-Western  Railway  on  all  goods  sent  by  it  and 
destined  for  Persia.  Additional  facilities  have  also 
been  arranged  for  the  trade  using  this  new  route; 
in  order  to  avoid  the  difficulty  of  having  to  go  150 
miles  out  of  their  way  to  Nasratabad  for  customs 
examinations,  hitherto  experienced  by  merchants 
proceeding  by  the  Nushki  route  to  Khorassan,  a  first- 
class  Customs  Bureau  has  been  established  at  Koh- 
i-Malik-i-Siah.  This  enables  kafilas  to  proceed  direct 
to  Kain  and  Khorassan  via  the  Palankoh  route  and 
to  avoid  the  detour  through  Seistan.  Furthermore, 
a  British  Consular  Agent  has  been  deputed  to  Koh- 
i-Malik-i-Siah,  one  of  w^hose  principal  duties  it  will 
be  to  watch  the  interests  of  British  traders  using 
the  route  and  to  assist  them  in  their  dealings  with 
the  Customs  authorities.  As  regards  traffic,  since  the 
opening  of  the  Quetta-Nushki  Railway  a  considerable 
flow  of  trade  has  set  in  from  the  Helmund  direction 
via  Chageh,  as  caravans  for  Herat  and  Afghan  tra- 
ders naturally  prefer  to  follow  the  Helmund  to  a  point 
north-west  of  Chageh  and  then  to  turn  southwards. 
A  stretch  of  desert  still  has  to  be  crossed;  but  it  is 
less  in  extent  than  that  betw^een  Nushki  and  the 
Persian  frontier  at  Robat. 

In  order  to  encourage  traders  a  revised  schedule 
of  rates  for  the  hire  of  camels  along  the  Nushki- 
Seistan-Meshed  route  has  been  issued  by  the  Gov- 

194 


SEISTAN 

ernment  of  India.  By  these  changes  the  hire  for 
single  camels  carrying  400  pounds  has  been  reduced 
from  57  rs.  8  a.  for  the  single  journey  to  55  rs.;  for 
the  double  journey  from  100  to  95  rs.,  the  time  hav- 
ing been  decreased  from  105  to  85  days:  this  latter 
is  a  distinct  advance.  The  charge  per  kharwar  has 
been  reduced  from  370  krans  to  359  krans  11  shahis, 
or  89  rs.  6  a.  This  concession  does  not  yet  equal  the 
average  rate  of  hire  from  Bunder  Abbas  to  Meshed, 
which  is  300  krans  per  kharwar.  Goods  must  be 
packed  in  gunny  bags,  boxes,  or  leather  cases,  no 
package  weighing  more  than  2|  maunds.  Special 
rates  are  quoted  for  wood-work  and  iron  materials. 
The  periods  allowed  for  the  journeys  are: 

Quetta  to  Seistan 45  days 

Seistan  to  Meshed    40     " 

Nushki  to  Seistan 38 

Contractors  will  be  held  responsible  for  all  loss  and 
damage  to  goods  in  transit  obviously  due  to  the 
neglect  of  the  camel-men.  They  will  be  at  liberty  to 
refuse  goods  for  delivery  if  they  are  not  properly 
packed  and  secured.  Loss  through  raids  will  be  con- 
sidered beyond  the  contractors'  responsibility.  Ten 
days'  notice  must  be  given  for  any  number  of  camels 
required  up  to  40,  25  days  for  over  50  and  up  to 
300,  50  days  above  300  but  not  exceeding  1000. 
Express  camels  can  be  hired  at  higher  rates,  the 
journey  from  Quetta  to  Seistan  being  then  made  in 
30  days. 

The  evident  success  of  the  new  route  has  been  the 
more  remarkable  because  M.  Naus,  the  head  of  the 

195 


AFGHANISTAN 

Belgian  administration  that  conducts  the  Persian 
Customs,  has  devised  special  means  to  check  the 
expansion  of  Indian  trade,  two  Customs  officers  being 
appointed  to  Nasratabad  to  deal  with  it.  To  give 
zest  to  their  existence  these  men  imposed  many  novel 
regulations  upon  caravans.  The  camel-men  are  fined 
for  the  non-observance  of  arbitrary  rules  which  are 
purposely  varied  so  that  confusion  may  be  created; 
the  men  are  thrown  into  prison,  the  animals  seized, 
and  the  goods  confiscated.  In  addition,  the  Cus- 
toms barrier  in  Seistan  is  reinforced  by  a  plague  cor- 
don between  Seistan  and  Khorassan  against  caravans 
from  India,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  period  of  any 
possible  incubation  has  expired  long  before  a  caravan 
from  Quetta  can  reach  Seistan,  and  that  the  limits 
of  time,  within  which  quarantine  is  permissible, 
have  been  laid  down  by  the  decision  of  the  Venice 
Sanitary  Congress.  The  headquarters  of  this  latest 
pest  are  at  Turbat-i-Haidari  and  Karez.  Mean- 
while the  Russian  and  Belgian  authorities  encourage 
the  circulation  of  alarmist  rumours  about  the  mor- 
tality from  Indian  plague  in  Seistan,  the  doctor  at 
the  Russian  legation  in  Teheran  recently  having 
spread  a  statement  that  99  per  cent,  of  deaths 
from  plague  had  occurred  in  the  Naizar  district  of 
Seistan.  While  these  reports  are  very  greatly  exag- 
gerated in  respect  of  Indian  plague,  an  epidemic  of 
this  disease  nevertheless  ravaged  Seistan  during  the 
spring  of  1906.  At  Nasratabad  the  population  was 
reduced  through  it  from  2500  to  rather  more  than 
300.     The  efforts  of  Dr.  Kelly,  the  medical  officer 

196 


SEISTAN 

attached  to  the  British  Consulate  in  Nasratabad, 
however,  did  much  to  arrest  it,  over  500  inoculations 
having  been  made  and  an  excellent  impression  cre- 
ated by  the  recovery  of  a  man  who  had  been  seized 
after  being  inoculated  by  him.  Nonetheless,  its 
existence  prepares  the  way  for  more  vigorous  precau- 
tions against  Indian  caravans,  the  measures  of  the 
plague  officials  being  directed  against  the  develop- 
ment of  Indian  commercial  relations  with  Northern 
Persia  and  Northern  Afghanistan  in  the  hope  that 
Persian  and  Afghan  merchants  may  frequent  the 
Meshed  emporium.  At  the  present  moment  these 
preventive  measures  have  achieved  conspicuous  suc- 
cess, and  Russian  commercial  activity  has  entirely 
subjugated  Khorassan  Province.  No  headway  ap- 
pears to  be  possible  for  British  trade;  while  the  rapid 
growth  of  Russian  commercial  influence,  under  this 
system  of  pernicious  assistance,  threatens  to  reduce 
Seistan  to  the  position  of  a  commercial  base  from 
which  the  markets  of  India  can  be  attacked  by  arti- 
cles of  Russian  manufacture.  A  precisely  similar 
state  of  things  prevails  at  Meshed  in  respect  of 
Afghanistan. 


197 


CHAPTER    XIII 

PROVINCES    AND    RACES 

AFGHANISTAN  to-day  is  divided  into  five 
major  provinces  —  Kabul,  Herat,  Kanda- 
har, Afghan  Turkestan,  and  Badakshan; 
and  two  territories  —  Kafiristan  and  Wakhan.  Kan- 
dahar includes  Seistan  and  the  basin  of  the  Helmund ; 
Herat  the  basin  of  the  Hari-Rud  and  north-western 
Afghanistan;  Afghan  Turkestan  the  former  khanates, 
Andkhui,  Maimana,  Balkh,  and  Kliulm;  the  province 
of  Badakshan  administers  the  territory  of  Wakhan 
and  the  regions  of  the  Upper  Oxus.  Kabul,  Herat, 
and  Kandahar  are  the  centres  of  their  respective 
provinces ;  Tashkurgan  and  Mazar-i-Sharif  of  Afghan 
Turkestan;  and  Faizabad  of  Badakshan. 

The  province  of  Kabul  is  bounded  on  the  north- 
west by  the  Koh-i-Baba,  north  by  the  Hindu  Kush, 
north-east  by  the  Panjsher  River,  and  on  the  east  by 
Jagdalik.  In  the  south  its  limits  are  defined  by  the 
Sufed  Koh  and  Ghazni;  to  the  west  by  the  hill 
country  of  the  Hazaras,  while  its  area  of  administra- 
tion includes  Bamian  and  Haibak.  The  province 
is  very  mountainous,  but  it  contains  also  a  large 
portion  of  arable  lands  which,  lying  along  the  base 
of  the  hills,  derive  much  of  their  richness  from  the 
offscourings  of  the  mountain  faces. 

198 


PROVINCES    AND    RACES 

Wheat  and  barley  are  the  chief  products,  these 
grains  constituting  the  staple  food  of  the  poorest 
classes.  Nonetheless,  the  crops  are  not  sufficient 
for  the  needs  of  the  province  and  the  demands  of 
an  inter-provincial  export  trade,  which  exists  in 
a  flourishing  condition.  Cereals  are  imported  from 
Ghazni  and  rice  from  Upper  Bangash,  Jelalabad, 
Lughman,  and  even  Kunar.  In  bad  years,  when 
prices  rule  high,  corn  is  obtained  from  Bamian, 
which  is  also  the  chief  centre  for  supplies  of  ghee. 
The  Hazara  country  and  the  Ghilzai  region  are 
active  competitors  with  Bamian  in  this  trade.  Agri- 
culture and  pastoral  pursuits  in  the  main  attract  the 
sole  energies  of  the  countryside;  the  most  impor- 
tant pasturage  existing  in  Logar.  Grass  is  plentiful 
in  the  Kabul  Valley  and  also  towards  Ghorband, 
while  agricultural  development  is  greatest  in  the 
Butkhak  district.  Water  is  abundant  and  every 
land-owner  devotes  considerable  attention  to  fruit 
culture.  A  large  porportion  of  the  population  in 
the  Kabul  Province  live  in  tents  during  the  sum- 
mer months.  The  villages  are  of  various  sizes  and 
usually  number  150  families.  As  a  rule  the  villages 
are  not  fortified;  but  each  contains  a  small  guard- 
tower  from  where  a  watch  is  kept  over  the  villages, 
fields,  and  flocks.  Sheep  are  maintained  for  purposes 
of  breeding,  but  bullocks,  camels,  mules,  and  horses 
are  employed  in  transport  —  trading  between  Tur- 
kestan, India,  and  Khorassan.  Bullocks  are  made  use 
of  within  the  precincts  of  the  Kal)ul  Valley;  camels 
between   Kabul  Province,   Khorassan,  and  Turkes- 

199 


AFGHANISTAN 

tan;  mules  and  ponies  between  the  province  and  the 
Ilazara  country. 

The  province  of  Badakshan  hcs  in  the  extreme  east 
of 'Afghanistan.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  the 
east  by  the  course  of  the  Oxus,  south  by  the  crests  of 
the  Hindu  Kush  as  far  as  the  junction  of  the  Hindu 
Kush  with  the  Mustagh  and  Sarikol  Ranges,  west  by 
a  hue  which  crosses  the  Turkestan  plain  southwards 
from  the  junction  of  the  Kunduz  River  with  the 
Oxus,  from  which  point  it  proceeds  ultimately  to 
strike  the  Hindu  Kush.  The  principal  sub-divisions 
of  Badakshan  are:  on  the  west,  Rustak,  Kataghan, 
Ghori,  Narin,  and  Anderab;  on  the  north,  Darwaz, 
Ragh,  and  Shiwa;  on  the  east,  Gharan,  Ishkashim, 
Zebak,  and  Wakhan;  elsewhere,  Faizabad,  Fark- 
har,  Minjan,  and  Kishm.  Numerous  lofty  mountain 
ranges  and  deep  rugged  valleys,  wherein  there  is  no 
little  agricultural  development,  define  its  physiog- 
raphy, while  ethnographically  the  bulk  of  the  peo- 
ple of  the  province  are  Tajik. 

In  winter  the  climate  is  severe,  the  mountain 
passes  being  blocked  by  snow  and  the  rivers  frozen. 
In  general  it  appears  somewhat  diversified  and  in 
the  loftier  parts  of  the  province  the  agricultural 
seasons  are  frequently  ruined  by  early  frost.  The 
chief  industrial  centres  of  the  region  are  situated  in 
the  more  temperate  zones  where  the  valleys  are  shel- 
tered by  the  orological  development.  The  rainfall,  by 
reason  of  the  stimulating  influence  of  the  forests.  Is 
abundant,  especially  in  March  and  April.  With  the 
end  of  April  a  period  of  drought,  continuing  through- 

200 


PROVINCES    AND    RACES 

out  May,  June,  July,  and  in  a  lesser  degree  in  the 
months  of  August,  September,  and  October,  begins. 
Snow  makes  its  appearance  in  November,  but  the 
heavier  falls  do  not  begin  until  the  middle  of 
December. 

The  principal  industry  of  Badakshan  is  agricul- 
tural; but  there  is  also  considerable  mineral  wealth, 
while  salt  deposits  and  sulphur  mines  are  known 
to  exist  and  in  some  measure  have  been  exploited. 
Salt  and  sulphur  are  found  in  the  valley  of  the  Kok- 
cha;  iron  exists  near  Faizabad,  while  the  ruby  mines, 
for  which  the  province  has  been  celebrated,  and 
the  lapis-lazuli  mines  are  found  respectively  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Oxus  close  to  Ishkashim,  in  Gharan, 
and  near  the  sources  of  the  Kokcha.  The  ruby 
mines  lie  some  1200  feet  above  the  Oxus  River;  but 
the  deposits  are  not  worked  regularly,  although  from 
time  to  time  in  the  reign  of  Abdur  Rahman  projects 
for  developing  them  were  initiated. 

The  alpine  territory  of  Wakhan  lies  in  the  extreme 
north-east.  It  consists  of  two  upland  valleys  which 
are  traversed  by  the  Panka.  These  are  hemmed  in 
on  either  side  by  lofty  mountains;  those  to  the  south 
form  the  northern  section  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  here 
crossed  by  very  difficult  passes,  the  easiest  of  which 
is  the  Baroghil  (12,000  feet)  leading  to  Chitral  and 
Gilgit.  The  chief  resources  of  the  people  are  derived 
from  their  flocks  of  sheep  and  droves  of  Tibetan  yak. 
Wakhan  is  too  elevated  and  sterile  for  tillage,  but 
it  yields  a  pasturage  like  that  of  the  Pamir  region. 
In  this  alpine  district  the  lowest  hamlet  is  8000  feet; 

201 


AFGHANISTAN 

Sarhad,  the  highest,  is  no  less  than  11,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  Nevertheless,  pulse  and  barley  crops  are 
grown  in  the  more  sheltered  glens. 

As  a  province  Afghan  Turkestan  ranks  among 
the  most  important  in  the  State.  Before  its  division 
at  the  hands  of  Abdur  Rahman  it  embraced  much 
of  the  territory  which  he  apportioned  to  the  province 
of  Badakshan,  including  every  important  khanate 
contained  within  the  Oxus  region.  If  now,  when 
Afghanistan  has  been  reduced  to  order  and  a  settled 
system  of  administration  has  given  place  to  the 
authority  of  the  Khans,  its  revenues  are  less  than 
others,  its  position  is  equal  to  Herat  and  Kandahar. 
In  importance  it  has  ranked  hitherto  with  the  capital 
province  and  contained  the  divisions  of  Maimana, 
Andkhui,  Balkh,  and  Khulm,  together  with  a  num- 
ber of  so-called  industrial  centres,  including  Tash- 
kurgan,  a  commercial  market  and  Mazar-i-Sharif. 
The  limits  of  the  province  include  the  southern  half 
of  the  Oxus  basin  from  the  frontier  of  Badakshan 
on  the  east  to  the  upper  waters  of  the  Murghab  on 
the  west.  The  Oxus  forms  the  northern  border 
from  the  confluence  of  the  Kokcha  River  to  Khwaja 
Sala.  To  the  south  it  is  contained  by  the  high 
mountains  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  which  form  the 
dividing  line  of  the  country  from  east  to  west. 

Quite  lately  Habib  Ullah  has  proposed  to  redistrib- 
ute the  various  districts  which  make  up  the  prov- 
inces of  Badakshan  and  Afghan  Turkestan,  so  that 
two  new  provinces  may  soon  come  into  existence. 
These  wull  have  their  headquarters  at  Mazar-i-Sharif 

202 


PROVINCES    AND    RACES 

and  Khanabad  respectively.  The  first  will  con- 
sist of  the  districts  of  Balkh,  Akcha,  Shibirghan, 
Andkhui,  and  Tashkurgan,  extending  to  the  Oxus 
on  the  north  and  Bamian  on  the  south.  The  second 
will  take  in  all  the  country  eastwards  to  Chitral, 
including  Badakshan  and  Wakhan.  Each  province 
will  have  a  governor  with  two  deputies.  Sirdar 
Ghulam  Ali  Khan,  brother  of  the  Amir,  will  be 
governor  of  one,  and  another  brother.  Sirdar  Omar 
Khan,  will  have  his  headquarters  in  the  other.  It 
is  intended  at  a  later  date  to  subdivide  the  prov- 
inces of  Herat  and  Kandahar  in  similar  fashion,  all 
the  governors  being  of  royal  blood. 

The  province  of  Herat  extends,  east  and  west, 
from  near  the  sources  of  the  Hari-Rud  to  the  Persian 
boundary  beyond  Ghorian,  some  300  miles;  and  in 
length,  between  its  northern  frontier  and  Seistan 
in  the  south,  some  200  miles.  As  a  whole  the 
region  lacks  any  particular  industrial  or  agricultu- 
ral activity,  its  present  appearance  suggesting  that 
the  unsettled  conditions  prevailing  on  its  northern 
frontiers  have  discouraged  all  efforts  towards  local 
development.  Although  it  contains  such  centres  as 
Obeh  and  Sabzawar,  besides  places  of  less  note, 
it  is  an  impoverished  province  and  requires  years 
of  honest  administration  before  it  can  recover  from 
the  ill  effects  of  the  abuses  which  have  distinguished 
its  existence. 

Although  the  Herat  Province  for  a  long  time  has 
been  the  seat  of  Afghan  government,  sometimes  in 
subordination  to  Kabul  or  upon  occasion  indepen- 

203 


AFGHANISTAN 

dent,  it  has  been,  nevertheless,  the  object  of  constant 
attention  from  Persia.  (  Since  Ahmed  Shah  Durani 
founded  the  Durani  Empire,  Herat  has  ranked  as 
one  of  the  three  chief  cities  of  the  country;  and,  even 
with  the  downfall  of  the  dynasty  which  Ahmed  Shah 
established  and  his  son  Timur  wrecked,  it  has  con- 
trived to  play  an  interesting  part  in  the  fortunes  of 
the  State,  if  not  always  an  important  one.  But 
from  the  time  when  it  was  incorporated  in  the  Afghan 
kingdom  by  Dost  Mohammed  forty-three  years  ago, 
it  has  experienced  without  any  serious  interruption 
the  yoke  of  the  Kabul  Government,  until,  freed 
from  the  menace  of  Persian  aggression  by  British 
intervention,  it  needs  to-day  only  a  period  of  equi- 
table government  to  restore  its  fortunes^ 

At  the  present  date  the  province  comprises  between 
five  and  six  hundred  villages,  with  some  forty-five 
thousand  households  distributed  over  the  centres 
of  Ghorian,  Sabzawar,  Farah  Bakwa,  Kurak,  Obeh, 
Ghor,  and  Kala  Nao.  In  the  days  when  it  formed  a 
separate  principality,  many  tribes,  now  lying  within 
the  Persian  and  Russian  boundaries,  w^ere  allied  in 
arms  with  Herat,  the  prestige  of  its  reputation 
enforcing  a  general  recognition  of  its  position  and 
obedience  to  its  behests.  The  old  order  has  now 
quite  disappeared.  With  the  advance  of  Russia  to 
the  northern  frontier  of  Afghanistan  the  indepen- 
dence of  these  roving  peoples  has  been  curtailed  and 
their  love  of  war  suppressed,  the  new  arrangement 
depriving  the  former  khanate  of  no  small  proportion 
of  its  earlier  glories.     As  a  province  of  Afghanistan, 

204 


PROVINCES    AND    RACES 

Herat  is  the  headquarters  of  the  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  north-western  frontier  and  the  seat  of 
a  provincial  governor;  it  remains  to  be  seen  whether 
it  becomes  a  centre  of  industrial  activity  in  connec- 
tion with  the  army. 

While  it  is  impossible  to  define  with  absolute 
accuracy  the  various  boundaries,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  in  point  of  size  the  province  of  Kandahar  is  the 
most  extensive  of  any  in  Afghanistan.  Although 
it  has  long  ceased  to  be  the  seat  of  the  supreme 
government  of  the  country,  this  province  is  second 
to  none  in  the  value  of  its  commercial  importance, 
while  its  revenues  have  become  an  important  factor 
in  the  upkeep  of  the  kingdom.  The  dimensions  of  its 
wide  area  extend  from  a  few  miles  south  of  Ghazni 
in  the  north-east  to  the  Persian  frontier  and  from 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  Hazara  country  to  the 
Afghan-Belooch  border.  The  district  centres  which 
the  province  contains  are  Farah,  Kelat-i-Ghilzai, 
Girishk,  Laush,  Kliash,  Barakail,  and  Afghan-Seis- 
tan.  A  division  of  interests  marks  the  relations 
existing  between  Kandahar  and  the  Farah  district 
which,  although  governed  from  Kandahar,  exercises 
complete  jurisdiction  over  its  own  revenues.  Ex- 
cluding this  source,  the  local  revenue,  which  is 
assessed  in  grain,  returns  a  little  short  of  a  million 
rupees  annually,  the  customs  and  town  duties  of 
Kandahar  city  equalling  the  land  revenues  of  the 
entire  province.  Lying  somewhat  closer  to  Kabul 
than  does  Herat,  Kandahar  has  shared  tlie  fortunes 
of  the  capital  city,  revealing  the  effect  in  itself  of 

205 


AFGHANISTAN 

any  change  of  rulers  in  Kabul.  Nevertheless,  while 
it  has  experienced  certain  intervals  of  independence, 
Kandahar  Province,  unlike  Herat  Province,  has  not 
suffered  from  the  effects  of  continuous  dynastic  wars 
and  the  dread  of  Persian  invasion.  In  general,  too, 
the  tide  of  its  disasters  has  flowed  from  India,  Brit- 
ish armies  of  occupation  having  been  in  possession 
of  its  areas  at  various  dates  since  Anglo-Indian  arms 
first  supported  the  cause  of  Shah  Shujah.  The  days 
of  British  intervention  have  passed  long  since,  and 
the  province,  no  less  than  the  city,  is  now  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  Amir's  dominions. 

The  division  of  Afghanistan  into  settled  provinces 
is  due  to  the  initiative  of  Dost  Mohammed,  the  earli- 
est movement  in  this  direction  being  the  despatch 
of  an  expedition  under  Mohammed  Akbar  Khan,  his 
son.  This  brought  about  the  downfall  of  the  khan- 
ates in  the  regions  south  of  the  Oxus.  Turkestan, 
including  what  is  now  described  as  Badakshan,  was 
not  completely  subjugated  as  the  result  of  this  indi- 
vidual's mihtary  activities.  It  was  not  until  about 
1866,  when  Shir  Ali  despatched  Mohammed  Alum 
Khan  to  Balkh  as  Governor  of  that  centre,  that  the 
operations  began  which  were  to  lead  to  the  complete 
conquest  by  Afghan  arms  of  all  the  khanates  con- 
tained within  the  Oxus  region.  Mohammed  Alum 
Khan,  through  his  general,  Hafiz  Ullah  Khan,  de- 
feated Mahmud  Shah,  the  ruler  of  Badakshan.  By 
this  victory  the  dependent  states  of  Shignan  Roshan, 
and  Wakhan  were  occupied.  Subsequently  the  an- 
nexation  of   Maimana   rounded   off  the  operations 

206 


PROVINCES    AND    RACES 

which,  in  the  first  instance  at  the  hands  of  Moham- 
med Akbar  Khan  and  later  at  the  instigation  of 
Mohammed  Alum  IChan,  had  brought  about  the  ex- 
tension of  the  Afghan  dominions  to  the  banks  of  the 
Oxus  and  the  Murghab.  The  conquered  area  was 
not  to  remain  long  without  a  change  in  the  fashion 
of  its  government ;  one  of  the  earliest  administrative 
acts  of  Abdur  Rahman  was  to  split  it  up  into  two 
divisions  — Afghan  Turkestan  and  Badakshan.  With 
this  improvement  upon  the  previous  condition  of 
their  affairs,  these  troublous  little  hot-beds  of  anarchy 
and  misrule  were  extinguished,  the  areas  being  incor- 
porated in  one  or  other  of  the  two  provinces;  their 
former  boundaries  now  represent  the  limits  of  the 
districts  or  counties  into  which  they  were  converted. 
The  chief  of  these  klianates  was  that  of  Kunduz, 
presided  over  by  a  Mir  and  covering  19,000  square 
miles.     It  was  divided  into  three  districts : 

(1)  Kunduz,  with  the  sub-districts  of  Baglan, 
Ghori,  Doshi,  Killagai,  Khinjan,  Anderab,  Khost, 
Narin,  Ishkashim,  Khanabad,  Tashkurgan,  Ilaibak. 

(2)  Talikhan,  with  the  sub-districts  of  Talikhan, 
Rustak,  Chiab,  Faizabad,  Jarm,  Wakhan. 

(3)  Ilazrat  Imam,  with  the  sub-districts  of  Ilazrat 
Imam,  Slab,  Kulab,  Tapa,  Kurgan  Yube,  Kabadian, 
Muminabad. 

Great  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  territory 
which  once  belonged  to  Kunduz.  Kulab,  Mumina- 
bad, Kabadian,  have  passed  into  the  possession  of 
Russia;  while  Ghori,  Narin,  Kunduz,  Baglan,  Ande- 
rab, Rustak,  Wakhan,  and  Faizabad  have  been  shorn 

207 


AFGHANISTAN 

from  its  territories  and  banded  over  to  the  province 
of  Badakshan  for  administrative  purposes.  In  the 
days  when  the  Klian  of  Kunduz  exercised  juris- 
diction over  a  belt  of  country  extending  from  the 
Wakhan  Valley  to  the  Kunduz  River,  the  population 
was  returned  at  420,000  people,  in  the  main  com- 
posed of  Uzbegs  and  Tajiks.  At  that  time,  too,  the 
district  of  Kunduz  possessed  60,000  houses,  that  of 
Talikhan  25,000  houses,  while  in  Hazrat  Imam  there 
were  20,000  houses.  Kunduz,  the  former  capital 
of  this  territory,  has  fallen  from  its  high  estate.  It 
is  nowadays  a  mean  and  sparsely  inhabited  district; 
the  little  town  itself  contains  barely  1500  houses, 
the  extreme  unhealthfulness  of  the  region  having 
caused  the  residents  of  this  former  populous  centre 
to  abandon  it.  The  place  still  boasts  traces  of  a 
fortress;  and  a  wretched  citadel,  situated  in  its 
north-east  corner,  is  the  seat  of  a  petty  official. 
Time  has  quite  obscured  the  lines  of  the  defences, 
and  a  dry  ditch,  which  once  surrounded  the  work,  is 
now  laid  out  in  fruit  gardens  or  sown  with  patches 
of  corn. 

West  of  Kunduz  lay  the  khanate  of  IQiulm,  now 
eclipsed  by  the  more  important  centre  of  Tash- 
kurgan.  In  the  days  of  its  supremacy  the  Khulm 
territory  included  the  districts  of  Tashkurgan,  Hai- 
bak,  and  Khurram  Sarbag.  When  the  seat  of  local 
government  was  removed  from  Khulm  to  Tashkur- 
gan, the  place  lapsed  into  decay  and,  now  that 
Haibak  has  been  brought  under  the  direct  admin- 
istration of   the  Kabul   Province,   Tashkurgan  has 

208 


PROVINCES    AND    RACES 

become  the  most  important  centre  of  what  was  once 
a  flourishing  khanate.  The  town  of  Khulm  stood 
out  in  the  Oxus  plain,  surrounded  by  a  belt  of  very 
productive  land.  The  irrigation  of  this  district  was 
highly  developed;  even  now  there  are  numerous 
orchards  and  cultivated  fields  about  the  site  of  the 
ruined  city.  The  population  has  disappeared  and 
barely  100  families  remain  on  the  outskirts. 

To  the  east  of  Kunduz,  15  miles  distant,  is  Khan- 
abad,  the  proposed  centre  of  one  of  the  suggested 
new  provinces.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Farkhan  branch  of  the  Kunduz  River.  The 
population  is  dependent  on  traffic  from  Cis-Oxus 
areas,  although  in  recent  years  considerable  local 
trade  has  sprung  up.  The  town  is  surrounded  by 
high  walls  and  lies  on  the  brow  of  hills  which  over- 
look the  Kunduz  region;  it  contains  some  1500 
households.  In  summer  time  a  far  larger  estimate 
could  be  returned  as  its  numbers  fluctuate.  A  posi- 
tion of  some  military  strength  has  been  made,  and 
the  fort,  which  is  comparatively  new,  possesses  strong 
mud-walls,  18  feet  in  height.  The  Farkhan  River, 
abreast  of  Khanabad,  divides  into  two  channels. 
The  western  channel  is  3  feet  deep  and  15  yards 
wide;  the  stream  possesses  a  rate  of  5  miles  an 
hour.  The  eastern  channel  is  60  yards  wide  and 
flows  immediately  below  the  walls  of  the  town. 

Tashkurgan,  a  cheerless  group  of  villages  enclosed 
by  a  mud- wall,  is  the  great  trade  mart  of  Afghan- 
Turkestan  and  a  distributing  point  for  the  mer- 
chandise which  caravans  bring  there  from  India  and 

209 


AFGHANISTAN 

Bokhara.  The  wall,  which  is  3  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, is  pierced  by  wooden  gates,  and  the  houses 
of  the  villages  number  between  15,000  and  20,000. 
The  population  is  subject  to  fluctuation.  It  falls 
as  low  as  15,000  in  the  winter  season,  rising  with 
great  rapidity  as  soon  as  the  opening  of  the  passes 
permits  the  resumption  of  trade  relations  with  China, 
Russian  Turkestan,  and  India.  Each  house  is  pro- 
tected by  an  eight-foot  high  mud-wall,  which  imparts 
a  dreary  and  monotonous  appearance  to  the  streets. 
The  houses  are  built  of  clay  and  sun-dried  bricks, 
with  one  storey  and  a  domed  roof.  As  a  rule,  they 
stand  amid  a  profusion  of  fruit-trees;  and,  in  the 
approach  from  the  west,  the  town  is  lost  in  a  maze 
of  fruit  gardens.  The  streets  are  straight  and  only  of 
moderate  breadth ;  they  intersect  each  other  at  right 
angles  and  down  the  centre  of  each  there  is  an  irri- 
gating channel.  A  branch  of  the  Doaba  River,  in- 
creased by  many  rivulets,  runs  through  the  town, 
but  it  is  absorbed  by  the  soil  soon  after  it  has  passed 
old  Khulm. 

Bazaars  are  held  every  Monday  and  Thursday 
and,  in  addition  to  the  produce  of  Bokhara  and  India, 
there  is  a  considerable  market  in  live  stock:  horses, 
mules,  cows,  sheep,  goats,  and  asses  being  assembled 
in  their  respective  quarters  for  sale.  Cotton  goods, 
cloth,  and  silk-stuffs  from  India;  tanned  leather,  raw 
cotton,  hides,  fuel  from  Turkestan;  grapes,  raisins, 
pistachio  nuts,  pomegranates,  dried  plums  from  the 
country-side;  rock  salt,  Russian  boots,  indigenous 
dyes  —  as    the    pomegranate    bark    and    madder  — 

210 


PROVINCES    AND    RACES 

and  indigo  imported  from  India,  are  exposed, 
together  with  chogas  from  Chitral  and  raw  wool 
from  Badakshan.  Printed  chintzes,  quilts,  and 
turbans  are  also  brought  from  Russian  Turkestan; 
and  coarse  saddlery  from  Kabul  is  much  in  request. 
One  section  of  the  bazaar  is  set  aside  for  the  sale  of 
melons,  which  are  raised  in  great  quantities  in  the 
neighbourhood. 

The  population  is  typical  of  a  frontier  region,  and 
a  sprinkling  of  natives  from  every  quarter  of  Cen- 
tral Asia  may  be  found  there.  The  Hindoos  act  as 
money-lenders  and  bankers,  exacting  an  exorbitant 
usury;  and  other  natives  of  India  keep  the  drug 
stores  and  the  dj'^e  shops.  The  vendors  of  dried 
fruits  are  mostly  from  Kabul.  The  trade  with 
Yarkand  is  in  the  hands  of  Andijani  merchants, 
who  acquire  the  sheep  and  furs  of  the  Oxus  terri- 
tory in  exchange,  at  Yarkand,  for  tea,  which  is 
disposed  of  in  Turkestan. 

Fifty  miles  to  the  w^est  of  Khulm  there  is  the 
beginning  of  what  once  was  the  territory  of  Balkh, 
which  draws  its  water  from  18  canals  fed  from  the 
Balkh  River.  To-day  the  scene  of  the  Mother  of 
Cities  reflects  nothing  but  decay.  The  bazaar,  sim- 
ply a  covered  street  with  a  few  shops  in  it,  runs 
through  the  village.  The  combined  population  of 
the  district  does  not  exceed  2000,  including  a  small 
colony  of  Hindoos  and  about  70  Jews.  Both  these 
classes  are  shop-keepers  and  each  is  subject  to  a 
capitation  tax.  The  caste  of  the  Hindoos  is  shown 
by  the  usual  painted  marks  upon  the  forehead,  and 

211 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  Jews  wear  a  black  sheepskin  cap.  The  chmate 
of  Balkh  is  very  insalubrious,  but  the  heat  is  tem- 
perate. In  June  the  thermometer  does  not  rise 
above  80°,  while  July  is  the  hottest  month  of  the 
year.  The  crops  do  not  ripen  until  July,  which 
makes  the  harvest  fifty  days  later  than  Peshawar. 
The  region  is  unusually  fertile.  Indeed,  the  fruit 
of  Balkh  is  most  famous,  and  the  apricots  grow  to 
the  size  of  apples.  The  soil  is  of  a  greyish  colour, 
like  pipe-clay,  and  very  rich.  Within  the  Balkh  re- 
gion water  is  distributed  by  means  of  aqueducts  lead- 
ing from  the  Balkh  River.  The  area  of  cultivation 
is  not  sufficient  to  exhaust  the  capacity  of  these 
canals,  their  constant  overflow  accounting  for  the 
extreme  unhealthfulness  of  the  place.  Aside  from 
this  peculiarity,  the  country  is  not  naturally  marshy. 
The  district  lies  some  1800  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  about  6  miles  from  the  hills  on  a  gentle 
slope,  which  sinks  towards  the  Oxus.  The  waters 
of  the  Balkh  River  do  not  at  the  present  day  reach 
the  Oxus,  the  stream  being  consumed  in  the  Balkh 
plain. 

The  spectacle  of  ruined  Balkh,  which  at  one  time 
extended  in  a  circuit  of  20  miles,  must  recall  Old 
Merv.  Formerly  it  was  surrounded  by  walls,  some 
6|  miles  in  circumference.  Nothing  is  left  of  these 
walls  to-day  but  a  mound  of  dried  mud,  worn  by 
the  weather  into  all  manner  of  desolate  and  fan- 
tastic shapes.  The  whole  of  the  northern  half  of 
the  old  city  is  one  vast  waste.  Within  the  Akchah 
gate  three  lofty  arches   mark   the  remains   of   the 

212 


PROVINCES    AND    RACES 

Jumma  Mas j  id  and  at  the  cross-roads  there  are  the 
foundations  of  the  charsu.  A  Httle  to  the  east  of 
it  there  are  two  lofty  gateways,  the  remains  of  the 
main  city  gates  —  the  western  portion  of  the  city 
having  been  added  subsequently.  The  southern  and 
south-eastern  portions  stood  upon  a  high  mound 
which  resembled  the  position  of  Herat,  but  all  the 
remainder,  with  the  exception  of  the  old  fort  and 
citadel,  was  low  and  not  more  that  10  feet  thick. 
The  citadel,  in  its  south-west  corner,  stood  some 
50  feet  higher  still.  The  whole  was  surrounded  by 
a  separate  moat,  rather  narrow  towards  the  city 
but  with  steeply  scarped  sides. ^  This  citadel  must 
now  be  nothing  but  a  mound,  the  weather  having 
obliterated  even  the  remnants  found  by  Colonel 
C.  E.  Yate.  To  its  north  lay  the  fort,  an  empty, 
bare  place,  surrounded  by  high  walls  and  ruined 
bastions,  with  no  signs  of  habitation  except  the 
debris  of  a  mass  of  low  brick  buildings  at  its  south- 
em  end.  It  stood  at  a  considerable  height  above 
the  level  of  its  surroundings. 

Between  Khulm  and  Balkh,  9  miles  east  of  Balkh 
and  26  miles  from  Khulm,  is  Mazar-i-Sharif,  situ- 
ated on  a  canal  drawn  from  the  Balkh-ab  and  con- 
taining rather  more  than  2000  households.  It  is 
held  in  the  greatest  veneration  by  Mohammedans 
in  general  and  especially  by  Shiahs,  on  account  of 
the  firm  conviction  that  Ilazrat  Ali  was  buried  there. 
The  tomb  consists  of  two  lofty  cupolas  which  were 
built  some  480  years  ago.     An  annual  fair  is  held, 

1  "Northern  Afghanistan."     Major  C.  E.  Yate. 

213 


AFGHANISTAN 

during  which  old  and  young,  the  bhnd,  the  infirm, 
the  halt,  and  the  maimed  of  many  a  distant  region 
crowd  to  Mazar-i-Sharif  and,  encamping  round  its 
shrine,  plead  day  and  night  for  the  saint's  interposi- 
tion on  their  behalf.  Where  cures  are  effected,  they 
are  the  result  more  usually  of  a  change  of  air  and 
scene;  but  the  greater  portion  of  the  faithful  return 
as  they  came,  bewailing  their  want  of  belief  and 
their  sins,  yet  never  questioning  the  potency  of  the 
shrine. 

Mazar-i-Sharif  is  the  summer  resort  of  nearly  the 
whole  population  of  the  Balkh  district,  as  its  situa- 
tion is  more  elevated,  its  temperature  less  oppressive 
and  its  air  less  impure  than  that  enjoyed  by  the 
Mother  of  Cities.  In  contrast  with  Balkh  it  is  the 
centre  of  a  flourishing  district,  w^here  the  soil  is  rich, 
returning  ample  compensation  for  any  agricultural 
attention  that  it  may  receive.  A  large  trade  ema- 
nates from  this  region,  as,  in  addition  to  an  ex- 
tensive settled  population,  there  are  considerable 
military  establishments.  The  headquarters  of  these 
are  located  at  Takht-a-Pul,  where  Dost  Mohammed 
was  occupied  for  five  years  in  constructing  a  fortified 
cantonment,  and  Dehdadi.  The  former  is  protected 
by  a  broad,  deep  moat  and  enclosed  Tvithin  double 
walls  30  feet  in  height,  pierced  for  musketry,  bear- 
ing gun  towers,  and  flanked  by  imposing  bastions; 
the  latter  commands  the  road  from  the  Oxus  and 
lies  upon  the  summit  of  a  high  mountain  overlooking 
Mazar-i-Sharif  from  the  south-w'est.  Twelve  years 
were  spent  upon  the  construction  and  equipment  of 

214 


PROVINCES    AND    RACES 

this  frontier  stronghold,  and  in  the  days  of  Abdur 
Rahman  it  was  defended  by  an  assortment  of  guns, 
embracing  Krupp  field-pieces,  naval  quick-firers  — 
such  as  Nordenfeldt  and  Hotchkiss  —  and  a  number 
of  Maxims.  The  works  are  well  protected  from  gun- 
fire, and  great  pains  have  been  taken  to  depress  all 
epaulements  to  the  level  of  the  mountain  face. 

Beyond  Balkh  the  territories  of  a  number  of 
minor  klianates  began.  Forty  miles  west  of  Balkh 
there  was  Akcha,  an  Uzbeg  klianate,  while  farther 
west  again  there  were  the  areas  of  the  four  territo- 
ries of  Andkhui,  Shibirghan,  Saripul,  and  Maimana. 
The  first  and  the  last  of  these  petty  governments 
were  the  most  important,  the  latter  preserving  until 
lately  a  form  of  independence.  Each  of  these  little 
states  has  experienced  singular  vicissitudes,  fighting 
constantly  among  themselves,  occasionally  uniting 
against  the  Afghans  or  the  Amir  of  Bokhara. 
Andkhui,  particularly,  has  endured  many  reverses  of 
fortune,  since,  lying  upon  the  roads  from  Herat,  the 
Turkoman  country,  and  Boldiara,  it  has  always  been 
subject  to  attack.  In  recent  years  it  has  enjoyed 
a  period  of  peace,  but  even  under  existing  condi- 
tions it  has  not  regained  its  earlier  prosperity.  At 
one  time  the  khanate  contained  nearly  50,000  fam- 
ilies, 13,000  living  in  the  town.  The  population  is 
a  mixture  of  many  races  —  Tajiks,  Uzbegs,  Persians, 
and  Turkomans  —  whose  religious  convictions  are 
divided  between  the  Shiah  and  Sunni  sects  in  almost 
equal  proportions. 

Andkhui  is  situated  on  the  Sangalak  River,  which, 

215 


AFGHANISTAN 

rising  in  the  Band-i-Turkestan,  flows  past  Maimana 
to  be  lost  in  the  desert  before  reaching  the  Oxus. 
The  water  of  the  river  is  undrinkable;  but  it  is  used 
extensively  for  purposes  of  irrigation,  and  imparts 
so  much  prosperity  to  the  Andkhui  district  that  a 
zone  of  cultivation  extends  several  miles  round  the 
city.  Fruit,  corn,  rice,  and  live  stock  are  raised  in 
great  abundance;  a  bustling  trade  is  conducted  in 
black  lamb-skins  with  Persia,  in  camels  with  the 
districts  beyond  the  Oxus,  in  fruit  and  cereal  prod- 
ucts with  inter-provincial  centres.  The  population 
now  resident  in  the  town  has  fallen  from  its  former 
high  figure;  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  only  3000 
families  wdthin  the  w^alls.  The  houses  are  all  flat- 
roofed,  low^  mud-buildings.  The  city  walls  are  in 
ruins;  the  bazaar  and  the  fort  are  the  sole  points  of 
interest  in  the  place.  The  bazaar,  which  is  situated 
w^here  four  cross-roads  meet,  is  insignificant.  It  lies 
in  the  centre  of  the  town  and  is  roofed  with  matting. 
The  market  days  are  Sundays  and  Thursdays;  but 
little  business  at  other  times  is  transacted.  Beyond 
the  bazaar  there  is  the  fort  —  a  high,  irregularly 
shaped  enclosure,  some  250  yards  or  300  yards  in 
diameter.  It  is  occupied  by  a  garrison  consisting 
of  one  company  from  the  regular  regiments  at  Mai- 
mana, 3  companies  of  Khasadars,  2  guns,  and  100 
sowars,  the  latter  force  being  quartered  beyond  the 
walls  on  the  northern  face. 

The  last  of  the  little  Idianates,  whose  areas  now 
compose  the  province  of  Afghan  Turkestan,  is  that 
of  Maimana.     This  extends  a  distance  of  18  miles  in 

216 


PROVINCES    AND    RACES 

breadth  and  20  miles  in  length.  Besides  the  chief 
town  it  contains  ten  villages,  of  which  the  most  con- 
siderable are  Kaisar,  Kafarkala,  Alvar,  and  Khoja- 
kand.  Maimana  itself  has  35,000  families.  The 
population,  divided  into  settlers  and  nomads,  is 
estimated  at  100,000  souls;  in  point  of  nationahty 
they  are  for  the  most  part  Uzbegs  of  the  tribes 
of  Min,  AtchamaH,  and  Duz.  There  is  a  sprinkling 
of  Tajiks,  Heratis,  and  a  few  Hindoos,  Afghans, 
and  Jews.  Hindoos  and  Jews  pay  small  capitation 
taxes.  The  town  Maimana  is  situated  upon  a  plain 
in  the  midst  of  hills.  It  is  surrounded  by  an  earth- 
wall  12  feet  high,  5  feet  thick,  and  a  ditch.  It  has 
towers  at  the  angles  and  four  gates.  Its  extent  is 
about  2  miles  in  circumference,  but  the  place  shows 
considerable  neglect  and  decay.  The  town  is  ex- 
tremely filthy,  and  the  bazaar  is  in  a  most  dilap- 
idated condition.  In  it  are  three  mosques  and  two 
schools,  the  former  constructed  of  mud  and  the  latter 
of  brick. 

The  revenue  of  the  district  is  estimated  at  £20,000, 
but  the  taxes  of  the  town  are  levied  by  the  local 
authorities  as  follows:  one  tithe  on  the  produce  of 
land,  one  tila  (Rs.  7)  on  each  garden,  2J  per  cent, 
on  cattle,  sheep,  and  merchandise,  one-half  tila  on 
each  house,  six  tilas  on  each  shop,  one  tila  on  the 
sales  of  horses  or  camels.  In  addition  to  the  tax 
on  merchandise,  transit  duties  are  levied  on  every 
camel-load  of  iron  or  other  goods,  while  the  Gov- 
ernment also  forms  a  close  monopoly  of  alum,  nitre, 
and  sulphur. 

217 


AFGHANISTAN 

The  prevailing  climatic  conditions  of  Afghanistan 
are  dryness  combined  with  great  extremes  of  tem- 
perature. Snow  lies  on  the  ground  for  three  months 
during  the  year  in  the  Kabul  and  Ghazni  districts, 
while  many  of  the  peaks  from  the  Hindu  Kush  to 
Kelat  rise  above  the  snow-line.  But  so  much  de- 
pends on  elevation  that  Jelalabad,  2000  feet  above 
the  sea,  is  scarcely  colder  than  India,  while  the  winters 
on  the  neighbouring  Kohistan  uplands  are  as  severe 
as  those  of  Russia.  The  coldest  month  of  the  year 
is  February,  the  mean  minimum  being  17°  F.  and 
the  maximum  38°  in  the  northern  districts.  The 
greatest  cold  is  accompanied  by  an  extreme  lowness 
of  temperature;  during  the  continuation  of  the  cold 
wave,  which  may  remain  for  several  days,  the  tem- 
perature varies  from  a  mean  of  12°  below  zero  to 
a  maximum  of  17°  below  freezing-point.  In  Kabul, 
w^here  the  snow  lies  upon  the  ground  for  three  months, 
the  thermometer  falls  to  3°  below  zero  and  in  Ghazni 
it  sinks  to  10°  below  zero,  wuth  a  daily  maximum 
rise  of  5°.  The  summer  heat,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  everywhere  high,  especially  in  the  Oxus  region 
w^here  a  shade  maximum  of  110°  to  120°  is  usual. 
At  Kabul  (6500  feet)  the  glass  rises  to  90°  and  100° 
in  the  shade,  and  in  Kandahar  to  110°.  Nonethe- 
less, southern  Afghanistan  is,  on  the  whole,  decidedly 
more  salubrious  than  the  fever-stricken  lowland  dis- 
tricts of  Afghan  Turkestan. 

If  such  is  an  outline  of  the  physical  and  climatic 
conditions  of  Afghanistan,  the  ethnographic  divisions 
no  less  require  mention.     In  spite  of  the  disappear- 

218 


PROVINCES    AND    RACES 


ance  of  the  khanates  and  the  incorporation  of  their 
territories  with  Kabul,  strong  differences  of  race 
still  mark  out  the  several  peoples. 

The  subjoined  table  comprises  the  different  tribes 
classified  according  to  their  geographical  distribution : 


Hindu  Kush  (northern  slopes). 


Hindu  Kush  (southern  slopes). 


Aryans 


Wakhis 

Badakhshis 

Galcha 

Swatis 

Branch 

Siah-Posh  Kafirs 

Safis 

Chagnans 

Kohistanis 

Afghans 

Iranic 

Branch 

Tajiks 

Seistanis 


Hills  north  of  Kabul. 

{Kabul J  Suliman  Mountains;   Kan- 
dahar; Helmund  basin;  Herat. 

Herat;    most    towns    and     settled 
districts. 

Lower  Helmund;  Hamun. 


Mongolo- 
Tartars 


Indie 
Branch 

Mongol 
Branch 

Turki 
Branch 


Hindkis 

Most  large  towns. 

Hazaras 

Aimaks 
Uzbegs 

"[Northern   highlands   between   Ba- 
J      main  and  Herat. 
Afghan  Turkestan. 

Turkomans 

]  Herat,  Maimana,  and  Andkhui. 

Kizil  Bashis 

Kabul  chiefly. 

The  Afghans  claim  to  be  Ben-i-Israel,  but  since 
Ahmed  Shah  Durani  announced  the  independence 
of  his  State  the  Afghans  of  Afghanistan  have  styled 
themselves  Durani.  They  are  settled  principally  in 
the  Kandahar  country,  extending  into  Seistan  and 
to  the  borders  of  the  Herat  Valley.  Eastward  they 
spread  across  the  Afghan  border  into  the  Toba  high- 
lands north  of  the  Khojak,  where  they  are  repre- 
sented by  Achakzai  and  Sadozai  clans.     They  exist 

219 


AFGHANISTAN 

in  the  Kabul  districts  as  Barakzai  (the  Amir's  clan), 
and  as  Mahmundzai  (Mohmands),  and  Yusufzai. 
They  occupy  the  hills  north  of  the  Kabul  River, 
Bajaor,  Swat,  Buner,  and  part  of  the  Peshawar 
plains. 

After  the  Afghans  the  dominant  people  are  the 
Pukhtun  or  Pathans,  represented  by  a  variety  of 
tribes,  many  of  whom  are  recognised  as  being  of 
Indian  origin.  They  inhabit  the  hilly  regions  along 
the  immediate  British  frontier.  The  Afridi  Jowaki 
and  Orakzai  clans  hold  the  highlands  immediately 
south  of  the  Khyber  and  Peshawar,  the  Turis  of  the 
Kurram,  the  Dawaris  of  Tochi,  and  the  Waziris  of 
AVaziristan  filling  up  the  intervening  Pathan  Hills 
north  of  the  Gomul.  In  the  Kohat  district  the  KLat- 
tak  and  Bangash  clans  are  Pathan,  so  that  Pathans 
are  found  on  both  sides  of  the  border. 

The  Ghilzai  is  reckoned  as  a  Pathan,  and  he  is 
also  connected  with  the  Afghan.  Nevertheless  his 
origin  is  distinct;  he  claims  only  ties  of  faith  and 
affinity  of  language  with  other  Afghan  peoples.  The 
Ghilzai  rank  collectively  as  second  to  none  in  mili- 
tary strength  and  in  commercial  enterprise ;  further, 
their  chiefs  take  a  leading  part  in  the  politics  of  the 
country,  possessing  much  influence  at  Kabul.  They 
are  a  fine,  manly  race  of  people,  and  it  is  from  some 
of  their  most  influential  clans  (Suliman  Khel,  Nasir 
Khel,  Kharotis,  etc.)  that  the  main  body  of  Povin- 
dah  merchants  is  derived.  These  frontier  commer- 
cial travellers  trade  between  Ghazni  and  the  plains  of 
India,  bringing  down  their  heavily  laden  khafilas  at 

220 


PROVINCES    AND    RACES 

the  commencement  of  the  cold  weather  and  retiring 
again  to  the  hills  ere  the  summer  heat  sets  in.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  months  thousands  of  them  circulate 
through  the  farthest  districts  of  the  peninsula,  where 
it  not  infrequently  happens  that  they  prove  to  be 
troublesome,  if  not  dangerous,  visitors. 

Underlying  the  predominant  Afghan  and  Ghilzai 
elements  in  Afghan  ethnography,  there  is  the  Tajik, 
who,  representing  the  original  Persian  possessors 
of  the  soil,  still  speaks  his  mother  tongue.  There 
are  pure  Persians  in  Afghanistan,  such  as  the  Kizil 
Bashis  of  Kabul  and  the  Naoshirwans  of  Kharan. 
The  Tajiks  are  the  cultivators  in  the  rural  districts; 
the  shop-keepers  and  clerks  in  the  towns;  while 
they  are  slaves  of  the  Pathan  in  Afghanistan  no  less 
than  the  Hindkis  are  in  the  plains  of  the  Indus. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  Tajik  is  the  Mongol 
Hazara,  who  speaks  a  dialect  of  Persian  and  belongs 
to  the  Shiah  sect  of  Mohammedans.  The  Hazaras 
occupy  the  highlands  of  the  upper  Helmund  Valley, 
spreading  through  the  country  between  Kabul  and 
Herat,  as  well  as  into  a  strip  of  territory  on  the 
frontier  slopes  of  the  Hindu  Kush.  In  the  western 
provinces  they  are  known  as  Hazaras,  Jamshidis, 
Taimanis,  and  Ferozkhois;  in  other  districts  they 
are  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  territory  which 
they  occupy.  They  are  pure  Mongols;  intermixing 
with  no  other  races,  preserving  their  language  and 
their  Mongol  characteristics,  they  are  uninfluenced 
by  their  surroundings. 

In  Afghan  Turkestan  the  Tajik  is  allied  with  the 

221 


AFGHANISTAN 

Uzbcg  and  Turkoman;  the  chief  Turkoman  tribes 
left  to  Afghan  rule  being  the  Aheh  of  the  Daolata- 
bad-Andkliur  districts  and  the  Ersaris  of  the  Khwaja 
Sahir  section  of  the  Oxus  frontier.  Originall}^  rob- 
bers and  raiders,  they  have  now  beaten  their  swords 
into  ploughshares  and  concern  themselves  with  agri- 
cultural pursuits. 

Thus  while  there  is  an  Afghan  race  almost  identical 
in  physical  type,  speech,  religion,  and  culture,  there 
is  none  possessing  a  distinct  sense  of  its  unity,  with 
common  political  sentiments  and  aspirations.  The 
Duranis,  the  Ghilzais,  the  Waziris,  the  Afridis,  the 
Mongols,  Mohmands,  Jusafzais,  and  others  form 
many  different  communities  within  the  State.  Each 
possesses  separate  interests,  although  Ahmed  Shah 
Durani  endeavoured  to  give  a  national  importance 
to  his  tribe,  not  only  by  changing  its  name  from 
Abdali  to  Durani,  but  also  by  associating  with  it 
other  sections  —  the  Jusufzais,  Mohmands,  Afridis, 
Shinwaris,  Orakzais,  and  Turkolanis  —  under  the 
common  designation  of  Bar-Duranis.  The  attempt 
failed,  and  these  sections  still  retain  their  tribal  in- 
tegrity, declining  to  be  fused  together;  so  that,  while 
the  peoples  of  Afghanistan  have  lost  their  indepen- 
dence, it  cannot  be  said  that  they  have  not  preserved 
their  individuahty. 


222 


CHAPTER  XIV 

ADMINISTRATION,  LAWS,  AND  REVENUE 

THE  task  which  presented  itself  to  Abdur  Rah- 
man upon  his  accession  to  the  throne  was 
of  such  magnitude  that  few  Asiatic  poten- 
tates would  have  ventured  to  cope  with  it.  The 
gravest  confusion  prevailed  in  every  department  of 
political,  civil,  and  military  administration,  while  the 
supremacy  of  the  Amir  of  Kabul  received  no  very 
definite  recognition  from  the  Sirdars  who  were  ruling 
over  the  several  tribes  which  together  made  up  the 
State.  Under  Dost  Mohammed,  as  also  in  the  reign 
of  Shir  Ali,  the  Sirdars,  jealous,  ambitious,  and  tur- 
bulent, governed  in  their  respective  districts  each 
after  his  own  fashion.  The  controlling  authority  of 
the  Amir  of  Kabul  was  not  infrequently  defied;  and 
as  no  community  of  interests  existed  between  Kabul 
and  the  khanates  there  was  no  enduring  form  of  gov- 
ernment. Everything  depended  upon  the  pleasure  of 
chiefs  who,  regulated  by  no  law,  were  always  ready 
to  indulge  in  hostilities  for  their  own  gratification. 
The  results  of  such  a  system  of  government  are  illus- 
trated by  the  civil  war  of  1863-1809,  which  distin- 
guished the  early  years  of  Shir  All's  reign,  the  final 
triumph  of  that  ruler  securing  the  paramountcy  of 

223 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  Amir  of  Kabul  throughout  Afghanistan.  While 
Shir  Ali  founded  a  certain  despotic  sovereignty  over 
Afghanistan,  it  was  Abdur  Rahman  who,  by  estab- 
lishing a  military  autocracy,  guaranteed  the  absolu- 
tism of  the  Amir.  The  continuation  of  such  a  form 
of  government  is  possible  only  so  long  as  the  Amir  is 
able  to  rely  upon  the  unswerving  loyalty  of  his  troops. 
But  until  the  moment  of  disunion  arrives  the  ruler  of 
Afghanistan  is  a  dictator,  whose  absolute  authority 
is  limited  only  by  the  calculations  which  prudence 
dictates.  Religion  is  the  one  counterpoise  to  his 
authority,  and  the  growing  influence  of  the  priests  — 
an  influence  which  has  increased  decidedly  since  the 
accession  of  Habib  Ullah  —  represents  the  sole  quar- 
ter from  which  might  arise  disturbing  elements. 

Under  Abdur  Rahman  the  power  of  the  priests 
was  held  in  check;  his  rugged  independence  did  not 
permit  him  to  brook,  even  covertly,  the  exercise  of 
priestly  authority.  The  church  restrained,  he  was 
able  to  proceed  with  the  work  of  curtailing  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  chiefs  who,  at  one  and  the  same 
time,  had  been  a  source  of  strength  or  of  danger  to 
his  predecessors.  Prompt  to  defend  the  authority 
of  the  Amir  of  Kabul  when  relations  were  cemented 
by  a  good  understanding,  and  accustomed  to  a  certain 
degree  to  participate  in  the  affairs  of  government, 
the  tribal  chiefs  refused  to  resign  any  measure  of 
their  authority  when  such  action  threatened  to  pre- 
cipitate the  disappearance  of  their  powers.  Dost 
Mohammed  did  not  attempt  to  interfere  with  the 
Sirdars;  Shir  Ali  introduced  into  their  position  no 

224 


LAWS    AND    REVENUE 

perceptible  modification.  The  tribal  system  was  in 
full  swing  at  the  time  when  Abdur  Rahman  ascended 
the  throne.  At  that  moment  each  tribe,  together 
with  its  sub-divisions,  according  to  its  numerical 
force  and  territorial  dimensions,  supported  one  or 
more  of  the  reigning  chiefs.  These  leaders,  whose 
existence  may  be  compared  with  that  enjoyed  by 
the  dukes  and  barons  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  France, 
occupied  so  great  a  position  in  the  State  that  the 
enlistment  of  their  services  upon  behalf  of  the  throne 
carried  with  it  a  weight  always  sufficient  to  main- 
tain the  balance  of  the  scales  in  favour  of  the  ruler  of 
Kabul.  Nevertheless,  in  order  to  fortify  his  own 
position,  Abdur  Rahman  decided  to  suppress  them. 
One  by  one  they  were  brought  under  subjection,  the 
gradual  circumscription  of  their  authority  paving 
the  way  to  the  subsequent  solidarity  which  distin- 
guished his  own  position.  From  this  step  he  pro- 
ceeded to  fasten  upon  the  remains  of  the  old  system 
a  new  administration,  purging  the  Augean  stable 
and  curbing  the  rights  of  the  chiefs  no  less  than  the 
license  of  the  individual. 

Hitherto  in  Afghanistan  freedom  of  movement 
had  been  permitted.  There  was  nothing  to  prevent 
the  entire  population  of  a  village  from  crossing  the 
border  if  the  majority  of  its  elders  were  so  inclined. 
Abdur  Rahman  checked  this  liberty,  instituting  a 
system  which  allowed  none  but  the  authorised  to 
move  between  the  great  centres  of  the  country  or  to 
venture  beyond  its  frontiers.  It  is  not  to  be  sup- 
posed that  he  was  able  to  maintain  free  from  abuse 

225 


AFGHANISTAN 

his  new  order  of  government.  Spoliation  and  embez- 
zlement had  existed  so  long  in  Afghanistan  that 
recourse  to  them  had  become  second  nature  to  every 
functionary.  Each  official,  whether  he  were  the  prod- 
uct of  the  new  order  or  a  remnant  of  the  old,  was 
corrupt  and  regarded  abuse  of  office  as  the  customary 
symbol  of  administrative  power.  The  existence  of 
such  a  practice  necessarily  threw  into  confusion  any 
attempt  at  reform;  and,  although  Abdur  Rahman 
produced  much  elaborate  machinery,  departmental 
disorders  continued  unabated.  In  Kabul,  in  spite 
of  many  high-sounding  titles,  the  methods  of  the  new 
order  were  still  regulated  by  the  principles  of  the  old. 

To  the  ignorant  or  to  the  zealous  this  condition 
of  affairs  may  perhaps  be  disappointing;  but  in  any 
Oriental  government  the  first  and  only  thought  of 
the  official  classes  is  the  enhancement  of  their  own 
interests  and  the  enrichment  of  their  private  coffers. 
Abdur  Rahman  put  a  stop  to  the  sale  of  public  offices, 
but  he  could  not  control  the  disbursement  and  accept- 
ance of  bribes  by  which  such  offices  can  be  awarded; 
and,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  while  success 
favours  the  delinquent,  his  crime  attracts  no  atten- 
tion so  long  as  he  may  distribute  his  favours.  Even 
under  Abdur  Rahman  it  was  rarely  that  officials  of 
importance  were  brought  to  book,  while  to-day  the 
Throne  itself  visits  the  avaricious  by  exacting  the 
repletion  of  its  privy  purse  at  the  expense  of  justice. 

It  is  of  course  to  the  credit  of  Abdur  Rahman  that 
he  began  his  task  at  the  beginning.  At  the  time 
of  his  succession  the  system  of  government  was  so 

226 


LAWS   AND    REVENUE 

involved  that  the  entire  machinery  of  the  civil  admin- 
istration was  carried  on  by  a  staff  of  ten  clerks,  who 
were  controlled  by  an  official  combining  within  him- 
self the  functions  of  every  executive  officer.  There 
were  no  public  offices  and  the  seat  of  government 
was  the  bed-room  of  this  man.  There  were  no  books ; 
the  statements  of  expenditure  and  the  records  of 
Government  business  were  entered  upon  small  slips 
of  paper,  8  inches  long  and  6  inches  wide,  each 
sheet  containing  the  briefest  abstract  of  the  matter 
with  which  it  was  concerned.  If  any  reference  were 
required  it  frequently  happened  that  thousands  of 
these  pages  had  to  be  examined.  In  order  to  remedy 
this  system  of  keeping  records  Abdur  Rahman  intro- 
duced ledgers  and  record  books,  the  defacement  of 
which  was  an  offence  punishable  by  the  amputation 
of  the  fingers.  From  this,  in  due  course,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  create  a  military  and  civil  administration. 
Under  military  administration,  in  addition  to  the 
armed  forces  of  the  army,  militia,  and  levies,  he 
included  the  departments  concerned  with  the  manu- 
facture of  every  variety  of  war  material  and  the 
industries  associated  with  each.  AW  workmen  em- 
ployed in  these  concerns  and  all  foreigners  whose 
services  were  retained  by  the  Government  were 
brought  within  the  supervision  of  the  military  bu- 
reau. Upon  the  military  side,  too,  he  arranged  that 
pay-sheets  should  be  honoured  monthly,  while  treas- 
ury disbursements,  which  were  incorporated  in  the 
revenue  branch  of  the  civil  department,  were  made 
annually  or,  in  certain  exceptions,  bi-yearly. 

227 


AFGHANISTAN 

The  civil  administration,  as  ordained  by  Abdur 
Rahman,  still  continues.  It  embraces  the  Boards 
of  Treasury  and  Trade,  the  Bureaux  of  Justice  and 
Police,  the  OflSces  of  Records,  Public  Works,  Posts, 
and  Communications.  The  Departments  of  Educa- 
tion and  Medicine  are  a  separate  organisation.  The 
Board  of  Treasury  is  divided  into  four  departments 
of  Revenue  and  Expenditure  —  northern,  southern, 
eastern,  and  western  —  in  connection  with  which 
there  are  the  State  Treasury  and  the  Private  Treas- 
ury. The  State  Treasury  is  controlled  by  the  State 
Treasurer  and  the  Councillors  of  the  Exchequer,  who 
render  accounts  to  an  Accountant-General.  State- 
ments of  revenue  and  expenditure  are  receipted  daily 
and  every  evening  an  abstract,  showing  the  trans- 
actions of  the  day  and  countersigned  by  the  heads 
of  the  departments  concerned,  is  submitted  to  the 
Amir.  The  Private  Treasury  is  occupied  solely 
with  the  income  and  monies  of  the  Royal  Family. 
Each  Treasury  is  divided  into  two  branches,  the 
one  being  set  aside  for  payments  in  cash  and  the 
other  for  the  reception  of  transactions  in  kind. 
The  Board  of  Trade  includes  the  Caravan  De- 
partment and  the  Customs  House  Department. 
Branches  of  these  are  established  in  the  larger 
centres  and  appeals  from  them  pass  through  the 
chief  bureau  in  Kabul,  where  they  are  referred  to 
the  office  of  the  Financial  Commissioner,  Mirza 
Shah  Beg  Khan,  for  presentation  to  the  Amir  when 
the  necessity  arises. 

Government  is  conducted  through  the  agency  of 

228 


LAWS    AND    REVENUE 

a  Supreme  Council  and  a  General  Assembly  drawn 
from  three  classes.  At  present  these  are  certain  Sir- 
dars who  take  their  seats  as  members  of  the  Royal 
Clan;  the  Khans,  who  are  representatives  of  the  coun- 
try; and  the  Mullahs,  who  are  the  representatives  of 
the  Mohammedan  religion.  Abdur  Rahman  mod- 
ified in  some  degree  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the 
Sirdars  in  connection  with  the  Royal  Durbars;  now- 
adays only  those  who  are  the  descendants  of  the 
Amir  Dost  Mohammed  Khan  and  his  brothers,  or 
who  have  received  the  specific  sanction  of  the  Throne 
to  bear  the  title,  may  occupy  a  place  at  them.  These 
three  classes  are  divided  into  two  parties.  One  of 
them  is  known  as  the  Durbar  Shahi  or  the  Supreme 
Council ;  the  other  is  called  the  Khawanin  Mulkhi  or 
General  Assembly.  These  representatives  are  con- 
voked by  a  call  from  the  Aishak  Akasee,  whose  posi- 
tion resembles  that  held  by  the  Lord  Chamberlain 
in  England.  It  is  his  duty  to  summon  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Supreme  Council  and  to  arrange  their 
seats  according  to  the  order  of  their  merit.  He  has 
another  subordinate  officer,  who  is  called  Omla  Bashi, 
who  notifies  the  General  Assembly  and  takes  a  receipt 
for  the  delivery  of  the  notices  of  meeting.  On  their 
arrival  outside  the  Durbar  Hall  councillors  are  re- 
ceived at  the  gate  by  another  officer,  called  Kabchi 
Bashi,  who  is  a  deputy  of  the  Aishak  Akasee.  The 
Kabchi  Bashi  introduces  members  of  the  General 
Assembly  to  the  Aishak  Akasee. 

Upon  the  attendance  of  these  three  Estates  of  the 
Realm  the  Amir  reads  a  proclamation  or  makes  a 

229 


AFGHANISTAN 

speech  on  the  subjects  which  are  chiiming  the  atten- 
tion of  the  meeting  and  at  the  same  time  asks  their 
opinion.  This  usually  results  in  the  expression  of 
the  same  views  as  those  held  by  the  Amir,  as  this 
assembly  has  neither  the  capacity  nor  the  courage  to 
detect  anything  wrong  in  the  law  or  policy  of  their 
sovereign.  Another  mode  of  introducing  an  altera- 
tion of  the  law  is  that  some  member  or  members  of 
this  assembly  may  lay  a  petition  before  the  Amir,  to 
which  sanction  may  be  given.  The  most  important 
factor  in  securing  any  change  consists  in  the  daily 
reports  from  the  magistrates,  the  governors,  the 
ecclesiastical  and  criminal  courts,  the  revenue  depart- 
ment, and  other  offices  of  the  Government,  who  for- 
ward their  decisions  for  approval  and  sanction,  or 
send  in  their  petitions  or  the  petitions  of  tribes  in 
the  country  requesting  the  Amir  to  sign  a  new  ordi- 
nance. If  the  Amir  forms  a  favourable  opinion  upon 
these  documents  they  are  enrolled  in  the  Record 
Office  of  the  Government. 

The  Amir's  Supreme  Council  or  Cabinet  differs 
from  the  EngHsh  Cabinet  in  that  there  is  no  Prime 
Minister  and  that  the  Cabinet  cannot  give  any 
advice  to  the  Crown  without  being  asked  to  do  so. 
The  Amir  is  seldom  absent  from  his  Council,  but  its 
assemblage  simply  depends  on  the  pleasure  of  the 
Crown.  If  the  presence  of  any  member  is  unpopu- 
lar in  the  country,  the  people  have  the  power  to 
protest  against  it. 

The  following  officials  constitute  the  Cabinet :  ^  the 

*"Law3  and  Constitution  of  Afghanistan."      Sultan  Mohammed  Khan. 

230 


LAWS    AND    REVENUE 

Aishak  Akasee ;  Lord  of  the  Seal ;  Chief  Secretary  and 
several  other  secretaries;  the  military  officials  of  the 
body-guard;  Lord  Treasurer  of  the  private  treasury 
of  the  Sovereign;  Secretary  of  State  for  War;  Secre- 
taries of  State  for  the  North,  South,  East,  and  West; 
Postmaster-General;  Commander-in-Chief  or  his  dep- 
uty; Master  of  the  Horse;  Kotwal  or  Home  Sec- 
retary; Quartermaster-General;  Accountant-General ; 
Groom  of  the  Bed-chamber;  Superintendent  of  the 
Magazines;  Heads  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and  of 
the  Board  of  Education.  In  addition  there  are 
sometimes  those  other  officials  or  chiefs  who  may 
be  sufficiently  in  the  confidence  of  the  Amir  to  be 
admitted  to  the  meetings. 

The  following  division  of  business  is  usually 
observed:  Monday  and  Thursday  are  devoted  to 
postal  despatches  and  to  the  Exchequer;  Tuesday 
is  set  aside  for  consideration  of  military  cases  and 
the  affairs  of  the  War  Office;  Wednesday  is  devoted 
to  the  affairs  of  the  whole  kingdom  when  public  as 
well  as  private  Durbars  are  held;  Friday  is  observed 
as  a  religious  holiday;  on  Saturday  the  Amir  sits  as  a 
Court  of  Appeal  and  Supreme  Court  of  Justice;  Sun- 
day is  devoted  to  the  inspection  of  the  army,  maga- 
zines, war  materials,  manufactories,  industries,  and 
various  miscellaneous  matters. 

The  laws  of  Afghanistan  at  the  present  day  may 
be  placed  under  three  headings: 

(1)  Islamic  laws. 

(2)  Those  created  by  the  Amir,  which  are  based 
upon  Islamic  laws,  the  opinions  of  the  people,  and 

231 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  personal  views  of  Habib  Ullah  as  well  as  of  his 
father,  the  late  Amir. 

(3)    Tribal  laws. 

Ill  criminal,  revenue,  and  political  law  the  pro- 
cedure was  devised  by  Abdur  Rahman;  but  for  the 
rest,  Islamic  law  is  the  general  practice.  The  cases 
decided  by  the  Amir  himself  are  brought  under  two 
headings : 

Firstly,  he  sits  as  a  Supreme  Court  of  Appeal,  in 
which  capacity  he  hears  and  decides  the  appeals 
from  all  the  various  courts,  whether  civil,  criminal, 
or  ecclesiastical. 

Secondly,  there  are  some  cases  which  he  hears 
himself  from  the  beginning  and  decides  himself,  just 
as  do  the  inferior  courts. 

Commonly  it  is  understood  that  when  the  Amir 
sits  as  an  original  court  to  hear  cases  which  are  not 
appeals  from  any  other  court,  such  cases  must  be  of 
great  importance:  such  as  political  disputes,  cases  of 
high  treason,  offences  against  the  Throne,  and  mat- 
ters of  Government  revenue.  This  is  merely  a  the- 
ory, since  any  person  who  has  even  a  trifling  matter 
in  dispute  can  have  his  case  decided  by  the  Amir 
himself  if  he  fears  that  the  subordinate  court  is 
prejudiced;  or  if  he  chooses  for  any  other  reason  to 
go  before  the  Amir  in  preference  to  going  before  the 
subordinate  courts.  It  is  in  the  pleasure  of  the 
Crown  to  refer  such  a  plaintiff  to  the  subordinate 
courts  unless  the  plaintiff  can  prove  that  he  has 
reason  to  believe  that  justice  would  not  be  equally 
meted  out  in  such  a  court. 

232 


LAWS    AND    REVENUE 

The  rule  of  Appeal,  unlike  that  of  England,  is  that 
the  superior  court,  instead  of  being  satisfied  with 
the  investigation  of  the  subordinate  court,  takes  the 
case  as  if  it  were  a  new  one.  New  evidence,  fresh 
inquiries,  and  investigations  are  made  from  the  very 
beginning,  as  though  the  case  had  never  previously 
been  tried. 

(1)  Appeals:  These  are  brought  before  the  Amir 
in  the  following  ways : 

Firstly,  the  various  courts  forward  for  his  ap- 
proval such  judgments  as  they  consider  of  great 
importance  and  do  not  like  to  take  upon  them- 
selves the  responsibility  of  deciding. 

Secondly,  the  same  courts  forward  to  the  Amir 
for  his  opinion  questions  on  which  there  is  no  defi- 
nitely laid  down  law  by  which  to  abide. 

Thirdly,  in  cases  where  the  spies  of  the  Amir,  who 
are  supposed  to  be  everywhere,  report  to  him  that 
some  kind  of  fraud  or  partiality  had  been  shown  in  a 
decision. 

Fourthly,  where  a  plaintiff  or  defendant  is  dis- 
satisfied with  the  judgment  of  any  court  he  can 
appeal  to  the  Amir. 

(2)  Court  of  First  Instance:  Occasionally  the 
Amir  sits  as  a  Court  of  First  Instance,  when  it  is  per- 
mitted to  all  persons  to  approach  him  with  grievances, 
disputes,  or  claims  as  they  would  any  other  magis- 
trate. Whether  it  is  an  appeal  or  an  original  case, 
the  modes  of  trial  in  civil  law  are  the  same.  The 
plaintiff  brings  his  witnesses  with  him,  if  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  any  witness  at  all,  and  the  defendant 

233 


AFGHANISTAN 

brings  his  witnesses  also.  Both  sides  are  heard  and 
the  case  is  decided  upon  the  spot,  the  inordinate 
delay  which  distinguishes  judicial  procedure  in  Eng- 
land being  avoided. 

The  various  codes  of  law  are  so  numerous  that  they 
would  fill  at  least  a  dozen  bulky  volumes.  Every 
official,  the  holders  of  all  offices,  great  or  small,  in 
Afghanistan  has  a  manual  signed  or  sealed  by  the 
Amir,  on  which  he  acts.  Instructions  are  so  minute, 
moreover,  that  it  is  a  common  saying  in  Afghanistan 
that  there  is  not  a  donkey-driver  in  the  country  who 
does  not  possess  a  signature  of  the  Amir  to  some  doc- 
ument giving  him  the  law  w^hich  he  is  to  obey.  All 
classes  are  amenable  to  the  law,  and  in  theory  there 
is  no  exemption  or  special  laws  —  not  even  for  the 
nearest  relative  of  the  Amir,  as  was  once  proved 
when  a  favourite  wife  of  the  late  Abdur  Rahman 
was  ordered  by  him  to  answer  in  the  courts  to  the 
summons  of  a  firm  of  Parsee  milliners.  Judicial  cor- 
ruption, however,  makes  evasion  of  the  law  neither 
difficult  nor  infrequent,  and  bribery  is  the  cause  of 
a  general  miscarriage  of  justice. 

The  condition  of  the  Criminal  Law  is  singularly 
barbarous;  and  no  attempt,  even  upon  paper  or  in 
theory,  has  been  made  to  mitigate  its  crude  severity. 
There  is  no  fixed  limit  for  the  various  punishments, 
and,  although  sentences  of  death  need  to  be  confirmed 
by  the  Amir,  torture  is  invariably  applied  in  all  cases 
of  criminal  procedure.  The  instrument  more  gen- 
erally used  is  known  as  the  Fanah,  a  contrivance  not 
unlike  the  "boot."     There  are  many  things  in  the 

234 


LAWS    AND    REVENUE 

Afghan  code  which  are  susceptible  of  improvement, 
for  the  whim  of  the  Amir  is  law,  and,  at  best,  he  is 
no  better  than  an  amiable  despot  whose  caprice  de- 
mands immediate  realisation.  In  this,  Afghanistan 
is  far  removed  from  the  condition  of  the  native 
States  of  India  and  the  territories  of  Bokhara, 
where,  if  justice  is  also  tempered  with  bribery  and 
corruption,  life  is  at  least  respected  until  the  inno- 
cent are  proved  to  be  guilty.  Not  so  in  the  Amir's 
country,  where  men  are  still  blown  from  guns  and 
penalties  of  equal  brutality  exacted  for  compara- 
tively trivial  offences. 

Illustrations  of  the  harshness  of  the  law  abound  in 
Kabul  itself.  It  is  a  common  spectacle  to  see  pris- 
oners, their  ankles  encircled  by  steel  bands,  which 
are  connected  by  a  rod  to  a  chain  round  their  waists, 
sitting  by  the  wayside  asking  alms  of  passers-by. 
Under  the  conditions  which  prevail  in  the  Kabul 
prisons,  unless  the  inmates  have  money  or  friends 
who  will  interest  themselves  in  their  plight,  they 
are  thrown  upon  the  charity  of  the  public  for 
their  means  of  subsistence.  Government  provides 
nothing  for  them  but  bread  and  prison  quarters, 
where,  chained  and  under  close  observation,  they 
lead  a  life  of  endless  misery.  Justice,  too,  is  very 
slow-footed  and  expedition  is  impossible  until  the 
officers  of  the  court,  whose  duty  it  is  to  bring  cases- 
in- waiting  to  the  notice  of  the  judge,  have  first  been 
bribed.  Heavy  tolls  are  levied  by  all  ofiicials  for  this 
service  and,  if  the  payments  are  not  forthcoming, 
the  trial  may  never  take  place  or  it  may  be  pro- 

235 


AFGHANISTAN 

traded  through  several  years.  Even  then,  when 
prisoners  have  been  tried,  their  sentences  pronounced, 
and  they  are  at  the  conchision  of  their  terms  of 
imprisonment,  the  rental  charges  for  their  use  of  the 
prisons  have  still  to  be  met.  The  system  is  iniqui- 
tous and  imposes  upon  poor  captives  the  alternative 
of  perpetual  slavery,  or  the  necessity  to  cry  for  alms 
in  the  streets  as  they  go  to  and  from  their  work. 
Employment  in  the  workshops,  the  ordnance  yards, 
and  upon  the  Government  buildings  is  the  only  de- 
scription of  labour  with  which  the  prisoners  are  fur- 
nished. In  a  measure  such  work  is  popular  among 
them,  as  it  affords  opportunities  for  discussion  with 
their  friends  and  gives  them  for  a  brief  space  some- 
what greater  liberty  of  movement.  Their  tasks  are 
of  the  hardest  and  roughest  description,  but  they 
have  a  chance  to  wash  their  clothes  —  even  to  take 
a  bath  in  the  canal  which  runs  through  the  factories. 
Sometimes,  too,  regular  workmen  distribute  their 
food  among  the  prisoners  or  even  present  them 
with  a  few  pice.  But  at  all  times  their  fate  is  terrible 
and  their  existence  in  prison  accompanied  by  extreme 
privations.  Again,  if  death  is  the  order  of  their  lot, 
it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  it  will  be  short,  sharp, 
and  sudden,  or  something  a  little  lingering  like  the 
ends  which  befell  a  robber,  and  an  over-zealous  stu- 
dent of  political  affairs,  of  whom  Abdur  Rahman 
made  such  terrible  examples. 

The  robber,  the  leader  of  a  band  of  brigands 
whose  exploits  and  activity  had  won  for  the  Lata 
Bund  Devan  an  unenviable  notoriety,  was  captured 

236 


LAWS    AND    REVENUE 

by  the  police  after  many  attempts  and  repeated 
warnings.  The  Amir,  who  had  become  exasperated 
at  the  robberies  of  the  band,  determined  to  make  a 
fitting  example  of  their  leader.  Upon  the  summit 
of  the  Lata  Bund  Pass,  8000  feet  above  sea-level, 
he  erected  a  flag-staff;  from  this  he  suspended  an 
iron  cage  and  in  the  cage  he  placed  the  robber  — 
where  he  left  him,  as  an  example!  It  is  said  in 
Kabul  that  the  fate  of  that  highwayman  determined 
the  end  of  the  robber  band.  Certainly  since  that 
day  no  further  crimes  of  violence  have  been  com- 
mitted in  the  pass. 

The  other  was  a  student  who,  brought  before 
Abdur  Rahman,  declared  in  a  state  of  unrepressed 
excitement  that  the  Russians  were  advancing  to 
invade  Afghanistan. 

"The  Russians  are  coming?"  said  the  Amir  with 
grim  deliberation;  "then  you  shall  be  taken  to  the 
summit  of  yonder  tower  and  shall  have  no  food  till 
you  see  them  arrive." 

The  theory  of  justice  in  all  Eastern  countries  aims 
at  punishing  some  one  person  for  every  indictable 
misdemeanour.  In  China,  in  Japan,  in  Korea,  and 
in  Africa,  too,  the  autocrat  measures  the  peace  of  the 
country-side  by  the  moral  effect  of  his  standard  of 
punishment.  No  crime  escapes  its  levy  against  the 
liberty  of  the  subject,  although  the  criminal  himself 
may  abscond.  A  precisely  similar  state  of  affairs 
prevails  in  Afghanistan  where,  in  the  event  of  the 
offender  escaping,  the  hostage  satisfies  the  findings 
of   the   law.     Liberty   of   movement,   therefore,    is 

237 


AFGHANISTAN 

denied  to  every  one  in  Kabul  beyond  a  six-mile  radius 
measured  from  the  Kabul  police  station.  For  per- 
mission to  go  beyond  this  point  it  is  necessary  to 
obtain  at  a  cost  of  three  rupees  a  rahdari  or  road- 
pass,  and  to  leave  Afghanistan  without  such  a  pass 
is  punishable  with  death.  In  point  of  fact,  facilities 
are  never  granted  until  hostages  against  the  failure 
of  the  person  to  return  have  been  given.  In  the 
case  of  any  one  venturing  to  leave  Afghanistan  and 
failing  to  come  back,  his  property  is  at  once  confis- 
cated, his  family  is  imprisoned,  and  his  more  imme- 
diate surety  is  executed.  Such  a  fate  befell  the 
family  of  a  soldier  who  was  making  a  protracted  stay 
in  India.  Arrested  and  threatened  with  execution, 
their  release  was  secured  only  by  the  man's  return 
and  surrender,  knowing  when  he  did  so  that  he 
would  be  blown  from  a  gun  on  the  place  of  execu- 
tion. This  was  ultimately  his  fate.  It  is  one  so 
constantly  meted  out  to  prisoners  that,  whenever 
the  boom  of  the  gun  is  heard  in  Kabul,  only  those 
who  are  of  the  sternest  disposition  can  suppress  the 
sigh  which  involuntarily  escapes  as  the  mournful 
sound  falls  upon  the  ears.  There  are,  of  course, 
other  ways  of  punishing  the  guilty  than  that  of 
blowing  them  from  cannon.  Yet  the  boom  of  a  gun 
in  Kabul  only  denotes  one  of  three  things :  the  pass- 
ing of  the  Amir,  the  mid-day  hour,  and  the  release 
of  a  soul  to  Paradise  from  the  horrors  of  the  Kabul 
prisons. 

In  the  city  of  Kabul  the  Amir  does  not  give  the 
enemies  of  law  and  order  a  chance.     The  chief  mag- 

238 


LAWS    AND    REVENUE 

istrate  has  become  an  object  of  public  execration 
and  wholesome  dread.  His  spies  are  believed  to  be 
everywhere;  and  hardly  a  word  can  be  spoken  with- 
out its  coming  to  the  ears  of  the  Naib  Kotwal  and 
through  him  to  the  Amir  himself.  The  Kabul  police 
code  is  curiously  elaborate.  It  forbids  evil  speaking 
in  the  streets.  The  vituperation  of  a  Said  (a  reputed 
descendant  of  the  prophet  Mohammed  through  his 
daughter  Fatima),  of  a  man  of  learning,  or  of  a  civic 
elder  renders  the  offender  liable  to  twenty  lashes  and 
a  fine  of  fifty  rupees.  If  the  bad  language  is  only 
aimed  at  a  common  person  ten  lashes  with  a  fine  of 
ten  rupees  is  the  penalty  provided.  Punishments 
are  also  laid  down  for  dishonest  tradesmen  who  cheat 
with  false  weights  or  adulterate  the  food  they  sell, 
for  the  indecorous  bather,  the  gambler,  the  purveyor 
of  charms;  as  also  for  persons  who  misbehave  in  the 
mosque,  forget  to  say  their  prayers,  or  to  observe  a 
fast  day.  The  man  who  kisses  some  one  else's  wife 
receives  thirty  lashes  and  is  sent  to  prison  for  further 
inquiry. 

Careful  directions  are  laid  down  in  regard  to  admin- 
istering the  lash.  The  instrument  itself  is  made  of 
three  strips  of  camel,  cow,  and  sheep  skin,  with  a 
handle  of  olive  wood.  The  stripes  are  laid  on  with 
pious  ejaculations  and  the  police  officer  is  exhorted  to 
feel,  if  he  cannot  show,  sorrow  for  the  wrong-doer, 
"since  Mohammedans  are  all  of  one  flesh."  Spe- 
cial cognisance  is  taken  of  offences  against  religion. 
If  any  free-thinking  Kabuli  omits  to  bend  his  head 
with  due  reverence  at  the  hour  of  prayer  the  police 

239 


AFGHANISTAN 

officer  must  at  first  remonstrate  gently.  If  the  mild 
appeal  fails,  lie  nmst  use  harsh  terms,  such  as  "O 
foolish,  O  stupid  one."  In  the  event  of  continued 
obstinacy  the  stick  is  to  be  applied;  and,  as  a  last 
resource,  the  Amir  is  to  be  informed.  He  —  "will 
do  the  rest." 

The  departments  for  the  administration  of  the 
Government  in  the  provinces  are  as  follows: 

(1)  The  Governor-General,  the  Governor  together 
with  the  Secretaries  and  Staffs. 

Strictly  speaking,  there  are  no  positive  restrictions 
limiting  and  separating  the  authority  of  any  one 
official  from  that  of  another.  Cases  go  before  any 
court  to  which  the  applicant  may  choose  to  take 
them.  As  a  rule  the  Governor-General  of  the  prov- 
ince is  the  executive  head  of  all  departments  within 
his  sphere  and  he  is  looked  upon  as  a  Court  of  Appeal 
from  the  District  Courts,  which  are  presided  over 
by  the  District  Governor  or  his  subordinate  officials. 
The  main  duty  of  the  Governor-General  is  to  col- 
lect the  revenues  from  the  land-owners  and  to  admin- 
ister the  province;  of  the  District  Governor,  to  settle 
the  disputes  of  land-owners,  to  keep  the  peace  in  his 
district,  to  circulate  the  Kabul  proclamations,  and  to 
forward  from  time  to  time  any  orders  which  he  may 
receive  from  his  provincial  heads.  The  chief  prov- 
inces are  administered  by  Governor-Generals,  the 
more  important  centres  by  Governors  and  the  smaller 
places  by  District  Governors,  District  Superinten- 
dents, and  Inspectors.  Commanders-in-Chief  are 
associated  with  the  Governors-General  of  provyices> 

240 


LAWS    AND    REVENUE 

and  military  officers  of  corresponding  subordinate 
rank  assist  the  civilian  officials.  Governors,  exer- 
cising full  executive  powers  locally,  report  to  their 
Governors-in-Chief,  who,  in  turn,  despatch  a  monthly 
report  to  Kabul. 

(2)  The  Kazi  (Judge  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Court) 
with  his  subordinate. 

^The  Ecclesiastical  Court  of  the  Kazi  is  looked 
upon  as  the  highest  tribunal  in  the  province  and 
hence  it  is  not  limited  to  religious  subjects;  all  civil 
cases,  whatever  their  nature,  may  be  taken  before  it. 
Generally  speaking,  business  differences  and  religious 
disputes  are  settled  in  the  District  Courts,  cases  con- 
cerning divorce,  marriage,  and  inheritance  passing 
before  the  Provincial  Supreme  Court.  Cases  pun- 
ishable by  death  seldom  come  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  provincial  courts.  The  Chief  Judge  of  this 
court  is  called  Kazi  and  his  subordinates  are  Muftis. 
Cases  are  decided  by  a  majority. 

(3)  The  Kotwal  (Head  of  the  Police  Department) 
together  with  the  force  of  Police,  Secretary,  and  the 
officials  of  the  Passport  Department. 

The  Kotwal  exercises  much  greater  authority  in 
criminal  cases  than  any  other  criminal  official  what- 
ever. He  combines  the  duties  of  a  District  Chief  of 
Police  and  a  judge  of  Petty  Sessions,  while  he  may 
determine  small  criminal  cases,  forwarding  the  more 
serious  to  the  capital.  He  is  also  in  charge  of  the  local 
Intelligence  Department  and  is  in  each  centre  an  offi- 
cial of  whose  tyranny,  oppression,  and  cruelty  stories 
and  poems  have  been  handed  down  from  posterity. 

241 


AFGHANISTAN 

(4)  Kafila  Bashi  (an  official  of  the  Caravan  De- 
partment) with  a  Board  of  Commerce,  a  Revenue 
Office,  Tax-Collector's  Office,  Treasury  Office,  and 
a  local  military  force. 

The  Kafila  Bashi  is  an  official  who  supplies  trans- 
port to  travellers ;  in  this  respect  he  is  responsible  for 
the  payment  of  all  dues  by  travellers,  as  well  as  for 
the  treatment  dealt  out  to  the  caravan  followers. 
He  receives  his  commission  from  those  who  hire  the 
animals  and  renders  an  account  of  every  transaction 
to  the  Government.  All  expenses  of  this  establish- 
ment are  paid  by  the  Government  and  the  balance 
passes  into  the  District  Treasury. 

The  Board  of  Commerce  settles  disputes  between 
merchants.  The  President  of  the  Board  presides 
over  this  court  and  its  members  are  elected  from 
among  the  mercantile  community,  irrespective  of 
religion. 

The  Revenue  Office  settles  the  accounts  of  the 
revenue  and  keeps  a  record  of  the  taxes  which  every 
land-owner  must  pay  annually  to  the  Government. 
The  land  revenue  is  now  fixed  at  one-third  of  the 
produce  of  the  soil  and  is  to  be  collected  by  the  lam- 
bardar  of  each  village.  Associated  with  the  Revenue 
Office  are  officers  who  register  and  copy  all  docu- 
ments issued  in  connection  with  the  collection  and 
expenditure  of  revenue.  Duties  upon  commerce  are 
levied  at  the  rate  of  two  and  one-half  per  cent,  upon 
all  exports  and  imports,  all  such  monies  passing 
direct  into  the  local  treasury. 

Abdur  Rahman  gave  his  closest  attention  to  the 

242 


LAWS    AND    REVENUE 

revenue.  One  of  his  earliest  acts  was  to  replace  by 
tokens  of  his  own  the  currency  which  had  existed 
under  the  Khans.  Hitherto  the  money  in  circulation 
in  Afghanistan  had  been  represented  by  three  varie- 
ties of  rupees  —  the  Herat,  the  Kandahar,  and  the 
Kabul  which,  although  not  really  of  identical  value, 
were  reckoned  at  ten  slialiis.  No  gold  tokens  had 
been  struck  by  any  of  the  dynasties  reigning  in  the 
State,  and  the  gold  coins  which  passed  in  the  country 
were  represented  by  the  ducat  of  Russia,  the  tilla  of 
Bokhara,  and  the  toman  of  Persia.  These  coins  had 
been  imported  in  the  natural  course  of  trade;  but  by 
a  strange  coincidence  the  Persian  token  suffered  a 
discount,  while  the  Russian  and  Bokharan  coins 
enjoyed  a  premium  of  ten  per  cent.  There  were  cer- 
tain silver  coins,  also,  which  had  been  introduced  by 
merchants  from  beyond  the  borders.  Among  these 
were  the  silver  kran  from  Persia  and  the  silver  rupee 
from  India,  equally  liable  to  the  vagaries  of  exchange. 

In  order  to  re-establish  the  currency  of  the  coun- 
try upon  a  sound  basis  Abdur  Rahman  opened  a 
mint  in  Kabul.  At  the  same  time  he  reorganised 
the  methods  of  revenue  collection,  besides  improv- 
ing the  channels  through  which  it  was  received. 

The  work  of  the  mint  was  at  first  conducted  by 
hand.  It  was  not  until  some  years  after  he  had 
ascended  the  throne  that  the  late  Amir  introduced 
minting  machinery,  at  the  same  time  requesting  the 
Government  of  India  to  loan  the  services  of  an 
Englishman  to  superintend  its  erection.  The  official 
thus  despatched  was  Mr.  McDermot,  employed  in 

243 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  Calcutta  mint;  and  under  his  supervision  Kabuli 
workmen  learnt  to  cut  tiie  dies,  to  erect  the  stamps, 
and  to  strike  otf  the  coins.  The  capacity  of  the  plant 
which  was  erected  in  Kabul  was  limited  to  a  silver 
and  copper  mintage  of  100,000  coins  a  day,  made 
up  of  five  and  ten  pice  pieces,  rupees,  half-rupees, 
and  third-rupees.  In  contradistinction  to  the  rupees 
which  had  previously  been  struck  off  at  Kabul,  each 
new  rupee  was  worth  only  one  shilling.  These  coins 
bore  upon  their  faces  the  inscription  —  a  translation 
of  a  title  conferred  upon  Abdur  Rahman  by  his 
people  in  1896  —  "The  Light  of  the  Nation  and  of 
Religion";  the  reverse  side  bore  his  coat-of-arms. 
Until  this  superscription  was  adopted,  coins  were 
engraved  only  with  the  date  and  place  of  casting 
upon  one  side,  and  upon  the  reverse  the  name  of  the 
ruler  —  "Cast  at  the  Capital  of  Kabul:  Amir  Abdur 
Rahman."  Since  Habib  Ullah's  accession  Abdur 
Rahman's  coinage  has  been  superseded  by  a  new 
issue  bearing  in  Turkish  characters  the  inscription 
"Amir  Habib  Ullah  Khan,  Amir  of  Kabul,  The 
Seeker  of  God's  help."  The  engraving  on  the  ob- 
verse represents  a  mosque  with  pulpit  and  minarets, 
encircled  by  rifles,  standards,  sw^ords,  and  cannon. 
While  the  receipts  of  Afghan  Turkestan  were 
incorporated  with  these  figures,  the  Herat  territory 
was  still  an  independent  sphere  and  its  income  on 
that  account  is  not  included.  A  few  years  later, 
under  Shir  Ali,  the  revenue  from  all  sources  rose  to 
£710,000;  which,  together  with  the  very  handsome 
subsidy  annually  paid  by  the  Government  of  India, 

244 


LAWS    AND    REVENUE 

and  if  it  had  been  assisted  by  a  liberal  fiscal  policy 
under  Abdur  Rahman,  well  might  have  expanded 
to  an  annual  income  of  one  million  sterling. 

Prior  to  their  systematic  collection  under  the 
arrangements  which  were  devised  by  Abdur  Rah- 
man, the  monies  of  Afghanistan  were  obtained  by 
an  elaborate  process  of  taxation,  which,  if  not 
altogether  excessive,  was  accompanied  by  much 
unauthorised  exaction.  Taxes  were  imposed  upon 
all  live  stock,  upon  cultivated  ground,  upon  all 
varieties  of  produce,  upon  houses,  and  upon  cer- 
tain classes  of  the  population,  the  apparent  aim  of 
the  authorities,  irrespective  of  their  actual  needs, 
being  to  extract  as  much  as  possible  from  their 
unhappy  subjects. 

Under  Abdur  Rahman  some  little  relief  from  the 
oppressive  and  arbitrary  payments,  which  were 
extorted  alike  from  the  unfortunate  merchant  and 
the  luckless  cultivator,  was  secured;  and,  as  he  in- 
stilled a  measure  of  reform  into  the  practices  of  gov- 
ernment, certain  sources  of  taxation  were  dropped 
and  the  burden  resting  upon  industry  and  agricul- 
ture proportionately  lightened.  The  principal  means 
of  income  to  the  State  now  emanated  from  taxes 
which  were  levied  upon  cultivated  lands  and  fruit- 
trees,  export  and  import  trade,  customs,  registration 
and  postage  fees  (contracts,  passport  fees,  marriage 
settlements,  etc.),  penalties  under  law,  revenue  from 
Government  lands  and  shops,  Government  monop- 
olies and  manufactures,  mines  and  minerals  (salt, 
rubies,  gold,  lapis-lazuli,  coal)  and  the  annual  sub- 

245 


AFGHANISTAN 

sidy  of  eighteen  lakhs  of  rupees  —  these  several 
branches  of  the  State  revenue  gradually  defining  the 
limits  of  its  present  prosperity,  which  has  been  some- 
what further  assisted  by  the  benevolent,  economic 
policy  of  the  present  Amir.  Abuses  in  the  collection 
of  octroi  have  been  remedied,  certain  taxes  abolished, 
man\^  mines  developed,  while,  to  give  an  impetus  to 
trade  in  Afghanistan,  Habib  Ullah  has  announced 
that,  in  future,  traders  may  receive  advances  from 
the  Kabul  Treasury  on  proper  security.  This  con- 
cession is  greatly  appreciated  by  the  commercial  com- 
munity, as  it  will  enable  them  to  escape  the  payment 
of  interest  to  the  Hindoo  bankers  from  whom  they 
have  been  in  the  habit  of  borrowing.  Moreover,  it 
is  expected  that  if  full  effect  is  given  to  the  Amir's 
wishes  trade  between  India  and  Afghanistan  will 
soon  improve.  The  loans  will  be  repayable  by  easy 
instalments,  this  novel  scheme  establishing  a  very 
important  departure. 


246 


CHAPTER   XV 

TRADE:  INDUSTRIES  AND  PRODUCTS: 

FOR  many  years  prior  to  the  reign  of  Abdur 
Rahman  trade  with  Afghanistan  itself  or 
in  transit  to  regions  beyond  the  frontiers 
had  to  contend  against  two  difficulties,  the  one  aris- 
ing from  the  heavy  imposts  upon  goods  intended  for 
local  consumption,  and  the  other  from  the  excessive 
charges  levied  upon  merchandise  destined  for  mar- 
kets beyond  the  Oxus.  Under  the  Khans  commerce 
struggled  ineffectually  against  exactions  which,  if 
comprehensible  during  a  period  when  the  country 
was  parcelled  out  among  a  number  of  reigning  fam- 
ilies, were  directly  inimical  to  its  better  interests  as 
soon  as  the  several  territories  became  incorporated 
within  one  central  administration. 

Under  the  rule  of  the  khans  and  in  the  reign  of 
Shir  Ali,  trade  received  no  encouragement;  while, 
if  Abdur  Rahman  were  the  father  of  his  people,  there 
is  no  doubt  that,  judged  by  his  domestic  policy,  he 
revealed  a  lack  of  foresight  in  fulfilling  his  parental 
obligations.  If  overweening  vanity  and  ignorance 
contributed  to  the  failure  of  Abdur  Rahman's  at- 
tempt to  make  Afghanistan  a  self-supporting  State, 

247 


AFGHANISTAN 

it  can  be  pleaded  for  him,  nevertheless,  that  it  was 
his  intention  to  help  trade  and  industries  which  were 
indigenous  to  the  country.  To  effect  this,  he  abol- 
ished inter-provincial  tolls,  maintained  the  scale  of 
rates  which  was  levied  upon  caravans  in  transit  to 
Trans-Oxus  markets,  increased  the  frontier  duties  in 
proportion  to  the  loss  which  he  sustained  by  with- 
drawing charges  hitherto  imposed  within  his  domin- 
ions, and  began  various  industrial  works  in  the 
capital. 

Enamoured  of  his  idea,  he  unfortunately  omitted 
from  consideration,  besides  a  certain  inadequacy  of 
revenue,  the  overwhelming  intolerance  of  his  sub- 
jects to  every  form  of  labour.  There  w^as  thus  in 
Afghanistan  itself,  when  six  years  after  his  accession 
to  the  throne  the  Amir  embarked  upon  a  campaign 
of  commercial  expansion,  no  reserve  of  capital  behind 
the  Government  and  no  fund  of  energy  in  the  people. 
In  spite  of  the  number  of  miscellaneous  industries 
which  he  attempted  in  Kabul,  no  continuity  of  suc- 
cess was  preserved,  while  reaction  against  his  pen- 
alties upon  Indian  trade  resulted  in  the  opening  up 
of  the  Quetta-Nushki-Nasratabad  road  as  a  com- 
mercial route.  Direct  loss  of  revenue,  therefore, 
befell  Abdur  Rahman  through  his  encouragement  of 
a  policy  which  was  prejudicial  to  his  own  interests, 
as  it  was  hostile  to  the  trade  of  India  and  Russia. 
So  far  from  profitable  w^as  the  issue,  indeed,  that 
the  position  of  the  State  at  the  close  of  his  reign 
was  in  anything  but  a  condition  of  comfortable 
prosperity. 

248 


INDUSTRIES    AND    PRODUCTS 

Under  pressure  of  financial  difiiculties  arising  from 
debts  contracted  by  his  father  for  the  supply  of  mil- 
itary stores  and  equipment,  the  development  of  pub- 
lic works,  and  a  host  of  minor  obligations,  Habib 
Ullah  was  compelled  to  reconsider  his  economic  posi- 
tion. Accepting  the  situation  on  its  merits,  dur- 
ing the  first  year  of  his  reign  he  remitted  certain 
duties  and  lowered  the  transit  charges  on  "through" 
caravans,  in  respect  of  indigo  and  tea,  to  the  equiv- 
alent of  2 J  per  cent,  ad  valorem  duty.  This  impost 
upon  tea  works  out  at  the  rate  of  7  pies  per  pound, 
but  the  tax  on  tea  intended  for  the  markets  of 
Afghanistan  is  much  higher.  This  is  returned  at 
125  rupees  per  camel-load  of  360  pounds,  thereby 
levying  a  charge  of  5  annas  against  each  pound, 
which,  although  an  exceedingly  high  rate,  compares 
not  unfavourably  with  the  crushing  customs  dues 
on  the  Russian  frontier  and  the  tax  in  England.  A 
revival  of  the  demand  in  Afghanistan  for  tea  grown  in 
India  has  shown  itself  during  the  past  year  or  two; 
and,  undoubtedly,  if  the  import  duty  were  lowered 
the  Afghans  would  become  better  customers,  espe- 
cially for  the  green  variety,  which  they  most  favour. 
If  the  Amir  could  be  convinced  that  a  smaller  duty 
would  involve  no  loss  of  revenue,  owing  to  larger 
imports,  a  reduction  of  the  tariff  might-  possibly  be 
sanctioned. 

On  the  whole  the  fiscal  policy  of  the  present  Amir 
encourages  the  belief  that,  in  time,  many  of  the  exist- 
ing obstacles  to  free  commercial  intercourse  with 
India  will  be  removed.     The  small  benefits  already 

249 


AFGHANISTAN 

offered  to  Indian  merchants  have  produced  immediate 
response  and  the  prospect  of  further  concessions 
is  widely  appreciated.  Trade  exports  from  Kabul 
during  1904-1905  alone  increased  b}^  25  lakhs  of  ru- 
pees, the  volume  of  trade  proceeding  from  Kandahar 
showing  an  improvement  no  less  emphatic.  The 
total  value  of  exports  and  imports  combined,  since 
indications  of  a  more  liberal  fiscal  policy  first  were 
manifested,  in  lakhs  of  rupees,  is  shown  in  the 
following  table: 


1900-01 

1901-0* 

1902-03 

1903-04 

1904-05 

Trfikhs 

Lakhs 

Lakhs 

Lakhs 

I«ikhs 

Southern    and 

Western 

Afghanistan 

58.19 

68.54 

53.48 

68.02 

76.53 

Northern     and 

Eastern 

Afghanistan 

48.01 

61.00 

63.99 

70.56 

95.36 

The  values  of  the  principal  imports  from  Kabul 
during  1904-1905  w^ere  fruits  and  nuts,  7.9  lakhs; 
animals  (horses,  sheep,  and  goats),  4.4  laklis;  hides 
(including  skins)  and  ghee,  each  about  2.5  lakhs,  the 
total  being  26  lakhs  as  in  the  previous  year.  Exports 
during  1904-1905  improved  by  25  lakhs  to  69.3  lakhs. 
Cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  accounted  for  8.8  lakhs  of 
this  increase.  Cotton  fabrics,  valued  at  38.3  lakhs 
(more  than  two-thirds  being  of  foreign  manufacture), 
increased  by  12.5  lakhs.  The  other  principal  articles 
were  cotton  yarn  (mostly  foreign),  3.2  lakhs,  and 
leather,  2.5  lakhs.  The  exports  of  tea  (nearly  all 
green  tea)  were  397,265  pounds  Indian,  value  1.5 
lakhs,  300,384  pounds  foreign,  value  3.1  lakhs. 
Among  imports  from  Kandahar  during  1904-1905, 
valued  at  40.2  lakhs,  were  raw  wool,  18.8  lakhs;  fruits 

250 


INDUSTRIES    AND    PRODUCTS 

and  nuts,  12.2  lakhs;  and  ghee,  2.6  lakhs,  in  all  of 
which  there  has  been  a  larger  trade.  The  exports 
during  1904-1905  reached  36.3  lakhs,  the  two  prin- 
cipal articles — Indian  cottons,  14.7  lakhs,  and  foreign 
piece-goods,  10  lakhs  —  both  showing  an  improve- 
ment. 

The  general  character  of  the  trade  conducted 
between  Afghanistan  and  India  is  indicated  by  the 
appended  list  of  the  principal  imports  and  exports 
with  their  values  during  the  last  three  years  in  lakhs 
of  rupees : 

EXPORTS  FROM   AFGHANISTAN 

1902-03  1903-04  1904-05 

Lakhs  Lakhs  Lakhs 

Cattle 31.31  23.61  33.29 

Other  animals 36.66  24.41  38.38 

Drugs       and       medicines,        including 

charas 24.01  23.98  20.72 

Fruits,  vegetables,  and  nuts     37.69  28.59  31.01 

Grain  and  pulse  (largely  rice) 1.37.73  1.36.64  1.49.78 

Hides,  skins,  and  horns   26.70  26.49  35.41 

Provisions:  ghee 82.78  53.09  64.05 

Pickled  tea 15.02  17.62  22.06 

Seeds      (chiefly      linseed       and       rape- 
seed)   53.28  39.97  34.80 

Silk 25.69  20.10  17.44 

Spices 13.86  20.25  17.17 

Wood  and  timber,  chiefly  teak 74.60  86.31  1.22.35 

Wool,  raw 32.92  23.91  27.05 

Woollen  goods 14.19  9.47  11.16 

IMPORTS  mTO  AFGHANISTAN 

1902-03  1903-04  1904-05 

Lakhs  Lakhs  Lakhs 

Cotton,  raw  12.76  12.49  7.60 

Cotton  yam: 

Foreign 35.68  32.58  28.28 

Indian 26.11  25.63  33.30 

251 


1903-1 
Laklw 

1904-5 
Lakhs 

1.55.28 

1.50.31 

52.60 

63.34 

18.65 

17.39 

25.27 

30.42 

11.34 

13.50 

20.49 

19.43 

31.42 

31.46 

9.54 

8.22 

16.76 

14.04 

25.04 

27.04 

11.73 

10.69 

10.16 

12.10 

AFGHANISTAN 


1902-3 

Cotton  goon  Liiklis 

Foreign 1.78.57 

Indian 64.37 

Grain  and  pulse    10.35 

Metals,     mainly     brass,     copper,      and 

iron     33.10 

Oils 13.12 

Provisions    21.47 

Salt 43.14 

Silk  goods    11.24 

Spices 16.69 

Sugar    32.20 

Tea 13.20 

Tobacco 12.82 


If  India  conducts  with  Afghanistan  a  trade  which, 
although  subject  to  fluctuations,  enjoys  considerable 
prosperity,  the  flow  of  commerce  from  the  Trans- 
Oxus  region  towards  the  same  markets  is  by  no 
means  contemptible.  Indeed,  articles  imported  into 
Afghanistan  from  Moscow,  Merv,  Bokhara,  and 
Samarkand  figure  in  every  bazaar  in  the  Herat  and 
Afghan  Turkestan  Provinces.  This  trade  passes 
through  the  customs  stations  of  Kelif,  Chushka 
Gusar,  40  miles  to  the  east  of  Kelif,  and  Termes,  34 
miles  to  the  east  of  Chushka  Gusar,  the  former  of 
which  is  the  principal  seat  of  Russian  Customs  on 
the  middle  Oxus.  Trade  between  Afghanistan  and 
Russia  has  never  been  altogether  prohibited  by  the 
Kabul  authorities,  Abdur  Rahaman  permitting  kafilas 
to  travel  by  the  routes  on  which  he  had  established 
customs  posts.  On  goods  purchased  in  Russian  ter- 
ritory by  Afghan  traders  a  rebate  equal  to  the  tax 
levied  by  the  Amir's  oflicials  is  granted.     Further, 

252 


INDUSTRIES    AND    PRODUCTS 

customs  dues  on  goods  imported  from  Afghanistan 
have  been  reduced  by  50  per  cent.  Russian  trade  is 
therefore  making  rapid  progress.  The  value  of  the 
goods  which  passed  through  the  Russo-Afghan  posts 
was  £450,000  in  1902.  To-day  it  probably  exceeds 
half  a  million  sterling.  The  import  into  Central 
Asia  of  goods  from  India  has  been  strangled  by  the 
high  customs  tariff  of  the  Russians,  plus  the  heavy 
transit  dues  in  Afghanistan  itself.  The  agents  of 
Russian  firms  at  Kelif  and  Chushka  Guzar  state  that 
they  can  now  compete  successfully  with  British  In- 
dian trade  in  Northern  Afghanistan  owing  to  the 
comparative  cheapness  of  transport  from  Europe, 
which  means  that  the  Trans-Caspian  and  Orenburg- 
Tashkent  lines  of  railway  are  carrying  Russian  mer- 
chandise at  specially  low  rates.  Nonetheless  the 
Russian  traders  complain  of  the  Afghan  transit  dues, 
as  their  imposition  causes  delay  on  all  the  principal 
caravan  routes  and  adds  enormously  to  the  trans- 
port charges.  With  the  advantages  which  Russia 
now  possesses,  unless  a  determined  effort  is  made  to 
save  the  situation  for  the  benefit  of  Indian  trade, 
we  may  presently  expect  her  to  renew  her  efforts  to 
open  up  direct  relations  with  Kabul  in  order  to 
obtain  greater  facilities  for  commerce.  It  may  be, 
too,  that  it  will  be  in  this  manner  rather  than  by 
active  aggression  that  she  will  seek  to  lessen  British 
influence  in  Afghanistan,  and  even  to  raise  compli- 
cations with  the  Amir. 

The  principal  Russian  commodities  are: 


253 


AFGHANISTAN 


ARTICLE 

Broadcloth. 

Glass-ware. 

Fine  linens  and  calicoes. 

Cutlery. 

Silk  goods. 

Loaf  sugar 

Velvet. 

Pig  iron. 

Chintzes. 

Steel  ingots. 

Sewing  thread  and  silk. 

Tin  in  plates. 

Gold  and  silver  lace. 

Copper  in  plates. 

Gold  and  silver  thread. 

Brass. 

Needles. 

Quicksilver. 

Steel  and  copper  wire. 

Cochineal. 

Russia  leather. 

Tea. 

Paper. 

Honey. 

China-ware. 

Wax,  white  and  yellow 

In  silk,  linen,  and  cotton  goods  the  Russian  fab- 
rics are  quite  equal  to  those  articles  of  Anglo-Indian 
manufacture  which  find  their  way  into  the  country. 
Russian  chintzes  are  more  durable  and  of  coarser 
texture  than  the  Anglo-Indian  article;  although  less 
elegant  in  appearance  and  of  colours  that  are  not  so 
fast,  they  meet  with  a  ready  sale  among  the  poorer 
classes.  The  silk  goods  imported  from  Bokhara  are 
of  Russian  manufacture,  but  they  might  well  be 
superseded  by  better  and  cheaper  importations  from 
India.  Silk  handkerchiefs  of  various  colours,  and 
even  black  ones,  are  in  great  demand.  Foreign  silks 
do  not  sell  so  readily  as  certain  lines  in  cotton  and 
linen  fabrics,  since  Kandahar,  Herat,  and  Kabul  pos- 
sess their  own  silk  looms,  each  loom  paying  an  annual 
tax  of  23  rupees  to  the  State.  The  articles  manu- 
factured by  the  native  looms  are  plain  silks,  called 
hanavaz;  red,  yellow,  and  purple  durahee  of  slighter 
texture,  less  width,  and  of  the  same  colours;  suga 
khanmee  of  large  and  small  widths,  with  perpendicu- 

254 


INDUSTRIES    AND    PRODUCTS 

lar  white  lines  on  a  red  ground ;  dushmals  or  handker- 
chiefs, black  and  red,  with  white  spots,  bound  by 
females  around  their  heads ;  and  broonghees  hummam^ 
for  the  bath.  To  meet  the  demands  of  the  Kabul 
market,  raw  and  spun  silks  are  imported  from  Bok- 
hara, Kandahar,  and  Herat,  but  the  great  bulk  of 
either  variety  required  by  the  Kabul  looms  comes 
from  districts  in  the  Kabul  Province.  Velvets  and 
satins  are  imported  from  both  sides  of  the  frontier; 
but  wherever  Indian  or  British  goods  meet  the 
products  of  the  Russian  market  in  Afghanistan,  the 
bounty-fed  trade  of  Russia  in  Central  Asia  enjoys  a 
conspicuous  advantage. 

Certain  imports  from  Russia  and  India  suffer  from 
competition  with  the  Kabul-made  product.  In  this 
respect  the  trade  in  gold  and  silver  lace  from 
Bokhara  and  India  has  fallen  away  very  noticeably, 
although  the  quantity  despatched  from  Bolvliara 
still  exceeds  that  imported  from  India.  The  trade 
in  leather  has  also  suffered  by  the  development  of 
local  tanneries,  but  importations  of  the  raw  material 
are  still  necessary  on  account  of  the  demands  of  the 
factory  where  the  military  equipment  is  made. 

The  trade  in  paper  comes  almost  solely  from  the 
Russian  market  and  quantities  are  imported  from 
across  the  Oxus.  The  paper  is  of  foolscap  size,  of 
stout,  inferior  quality,  and  white  or  blue  in  colour. 
There  are  two  assortments:  glazed  and  unglazed. 
The  blue,  glazed  variety  is  preferred,  the  unglazed 
kind  usually  being  sized  at  Kabul.  A  busy  trade 
in  this  commodity  passes  between  Kabul  and  Kan- 

^55 


AFGHANISTAN 

dahar,  the  Russian  product  having  captured  the 
market  to  the  practical  exchision  of  all  other  brands. 
The  paper  needs  to  be  stout  to  allow  facility  of 
erasure;  on  this  account,  and  with  reference  to  the 
nature  of  the  ink  employed,  glazed  paper  is  most 
satisfactory. 

The  attention  of  the  people  is  directed  to  the  land 
rather  than  to  trade  and  a  very  large  proportion  of 
the  population  takes  naturally  to  cultivation.  Farm- 
ing is  divided  between  the  production  of  fruit  and 
the  growth  of  cereals.  The  Afghans  are  a  fruit- 
loving  people;  in  certain  districts  fruit,  both  in  its 
fresh  and  preserved  condition,  forms  the  staple  diet 
of  a  large  section  of  the  population  throughout  the 
year.  A  rapidly  growing  export  in  fresh  and  dried 
fruits  exists  with  India.  Indeed,  so  important  has 
this  industry  become  that,  in  the  country  round 
Kandahar,  a  marked  increase  in  the  number  of 
orchards  and  fruit  gardens  has  taken  place  within 
the  last  five  years,  the  presence  of  the  railway  at 
New  Chaman  and  its  extension  to  Nushki  making 
the  exportation  of  fresh  fruit  not  only  practicable 
but  profitable.  Fruit  farming  is  divided  between 
orchard  fruits,  with  which  vegetable  farming  is 
usually  combined,  and  those  fruits  which  may  be 
grown  in  fields  on  a  large  scale.  In  the  one  class 
are  apples,  pears,  almonds,  peaches,  apricots,  plums, 
cherries,  grapes,  figs,  quinces,  pomegranates,  and 
mulberries,  in  addition  to  walnut,  pistachio,  the 
edible  pine,  and  rhubarb,  which  grow  wild  in  the 
northern  and  eastern  highlands.     Vegetable  produce, 

256 


INDUSTRIES    AND    PRODUCTS 

which  holds  a  high  position  in  the  export  trade, 
includes  most  domestic  vegetables;  while,  of  the 
uncultivated  vegetable  products,  the  castor-oil  plant, 
the  mustard,  sesame,  and  assafoetida  grow  in  great 
abundance.  The  fruit  fields  also  produce  several  va- 
rieties of  melons,  including  musk,  water,  and  scented 
melons,  cucumbers,  and  pumpkins. 

In  the  direction  of  cereal  production  there  are  two 
harvests.  One,  reaped  in  summer,  is  the  result  of 
an  autumn  sowing  and  includes  wheat,  barley,  and 
certain  varieties  of  peas  and  beans.  The  second 
harvest  is  gathered  in  autumn  from  a  spring  sowing, 
and  embraces  crops,  rice,  Indian  corn,  millet,  arzun, 
and  jowari,  besides  other  grains  of  less  importance. 
In  addition  to  these  cereals,  crops  of  madder,  tobacco, 
cotton,  opium,  hemp,  clover,  and  lucerne  are  very 
generally  cultivated.  Clover  and  lucerne  are  pro- 
duced for  fodder,  hemp  for  its  intoxicating  prop- 
erties, and  madder,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  opium  for 
export.  In  relation  to  the  other  crops,  wheat  is  the 
food  of  the  people,  barley  and  jowari  are  given  to 
horses,  and  arzun  and  Indian  corn  are  grown  for 
culinary  purposes. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Afghanistan  is  at  present 
almost  entirely  undeveloped,  the  late  Amir,  Abdur 
Rahman,  being  possessed  by  an  instinctive  animus 
against  company  promoters  and  concession  hunters. 
Habib  Ullah,  too,  has  not  yet  made  any  sign  of 
permitting  the  evident  resources  of  the  country  to 
be  exploited.  The  localities  in  which  deposits  are 
known  to  exist  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  table: 

257 


AFGHANISTAN 

Mineral  Locality 

Gold   Laghman  and  adjoining  districts. 

Silver    Panjshir  Valley. 

Iron  ore   Bajaur,  Permuli  district,  and  Hindu  Kush. 

Copper  ore Various  districts. 

I^ead Upper    Bangash,    Shinwari   country,    Kakar 

country,  and  in  neighbourhood  of  Herat. 
Lead  with  antimony    At  Argandab,   in   the   Wardak  Hills,   Ghor- 

band  Valley,  Afridi  country. 

Antimony Shah-Maksud. 

Silicate  of  zinc Zhob  Valley. 

Sulphur    Herat,  Hazara  country,  Pirkisri. 

Sal-ammoniac   Pirkisri. 

Gypsum Plain  of  Kandahar. 

Coal Zurmat,  near  Ghazni,  Afghan  Turkestan. 

Nitre South-western  Afghanistan. 

Among  the  industries  of  Afghanistan,  exclusive 
of  the  agricultural  activities  of  a  large  section  of 
the  people,  the  production  of  silks,  the  manufacture 
of  felts,  postins,  and  rosaries,  the  cultivation  of 
turmeric  and  ginger,  and  horse  breeding  occupy 
important  positions. 

Silk  is  produced  in  considerable  quantity  at  Kan- 
dahar, which  is  also  the  centre  of  other  arts  and 
crafts  that  afford  occupation  and  support  to  numer- 
ous families.  The  quality  of  Kandahar  silk  is  capa- 
ble of  much  improvement.  The  cocoons  are  small, 
of  unequal  size,  and  of  different  colours  —  yellow, 
white,  and  grey.  The  majority  of  the  worms  are 
reared  in  neighbouring  villages,  but  principally  in 
those  along  the  Argand-ab,  where  also  the  mulberry 
trees  are  most  abundant.  The  value  of  the  mul- 
berry trees  around  Kandahar  is  estimated  at  several 
lakhs.    The  whole  of  the  silk  produced  in  the  district 

258 


INDUSTRIES    AND    PRODUCTS 

pays  a  tax  to  the  Government,  and  its  sale  without 
permission  is  prohibited. 

The  manufacture  of  sheepskin  coats  is  an  impor- 
tant industry  which  once  made  Kandahar  Province 
its  centre.  Of  late  years  the  trade  has  so  greatly 
increased,  owing  to  the  demands  for  this  article  from 
India,  that  other  districts  have  devoted  themselves 
to  it  with  equal  success.  The  leather  is  prepared 
and  made  up  in  Kandahar,  Ghazni,  and  Kabul  on 
an  extended  scale,  thus  giving  occupation  to  many 
hundreds  of  famiHes.  The  method  of  manufacture 
is  not  without  interest.  The  dried,  unshorn  sheep- 
skin is  immersed  in  running  water  until  it  is  soft  and 
pliant,  while  at  the  same  time  the  wool  is  thoroughly 
washed  with  soap.  After  this  the  fleece  is  combed 
and  the  skin  stretched  on  a  board,  when  the  inside 
surface  is  smeared  with  a  thin  paste,  composed  of 
equal  parts  of  fine  wheaten  and  rice  flour,  to  which 
is  added  a  small  proportion  of  finely  powdered  salt. 
This  dressing  is  renewed  daily  for  five  or  six  days, 
throughout  which  time  the  pelt  is  exposed  to  the  sun. 
Before  the  conclusion  of  this  process  the  skin  is  again 
cleansed,  washed,  and  dried,  after  which  all  super- 
fluous growths  are  removed.  The  surface  is  then 
treated  with  a  tanning  mixture  made  of  dried  pome- 
granate rinds,  powdered  alum,  red  ochre,  and  sweet 
oil.  After  some  days,  when  the  requisite  suppleness 
has  been  gained,  this  preparation  is  scraped  off. 

In  the  western  districts  a  mixture  of  alum  and  white 
clay  is  used  in  preference  to  the  pomegranate  rinds. 
In  such  cases  the  skins,  when  cured,  are  white  and 

259 


AFGHANISTAN 

somewhat  coarser  to  the  touch  than  those  prepared 
with  pomegranate  rinds.  In  the  Kabul  process  the 
pomegranate  rind  is  used  most  freely;  as  the  Kabul 
skins  are  prepared  with  the  greatest  care,  they  are 
esteemed  more  than  those  of  Ghazni  and  Kanda- 
har. Before  the  tanning  is  completed  the  skins  are 
handed  over  to  tailors  who  reduce  them  to  strips  of 
2  feet  long  by  4  or  5  inches  wide,  from  which  they 
make  three  varieties  of  coats.  One  class  comprises 
small  coats  with  short  sleeves  and  requires  only  two 
or  three  skins;  another  description  reaches  to  the 
knees  and  is  furnished  with  full  sleeves  fitting  close 
to  the  arm.  This  takes  five  or  six  pelts.  A  third 
pattern  forms  a  large  loose  cloak  of  capacious  dimen- 
sions extending  from  head  to  heel  and  furnished  with 
long  sleeves,  very  wide  above  the  elbow  and  very 
narrow  below  it;  it  also  projects  several  inches  beyond 
the  tips  of  the  fingers.  These  require  ten  or  tw^elve 
skins.  Usually  the  edges  and  sleeves  of  the  coats  are 
embroidered  with  yellow  silk.  The  completed  arti- 
cles cost  from  one  to  fifty  rupees,  according  to  size 
and  finish.  They  are  well  adapted  to  the  climate 
of  the  country;  except  in  exposure  to  rain,  when  they 
are  reversed,  the  woolly  side  is  w^orn  next  to  the  body. 
The  full-length  coat  is  a  very  cumbrous  dress  and  is 
usually  only  worn  in  the  house;  it  serves  alike  for 
bed,  bedding,  or  as  a  cloak.  The  nature  of  the  mate- 
rial favours  the  harbouring  of  insects,  and  few  people 
are  met  whose  coats  do  not  serve  as  a  breeding- 
ground  for  an  immense  colony  of  vermin. 

An  industry  of  equal  importance  with  the  postin 

260 


INDUSTRIES    AND    PRODUCTS 

trade  is  the  manufacture  of  felts,  which  similarly 
centres  in  Kandahar.  From  there  these  goods  are 
distributed  throughout  the  country,  besides  being  ex- 
ported to  India,  Persia,  and  the  Trans-Oxus  region. 

Rosaries  are  also  extensively  manufactured  at 
Kandahar  from  soft  crystallised  silicate  of  magne- 
sia. This  is  quarried  from  a  hill  at  Shah  Maksud, 
about  30  miles  north-west  of  the  city,  where  soap- 
stone  and  antimony  are  also  obtained  in  consider- 
able abundance.  The  stone  varies  in  colour  from 
a  light  yellow  to  a  bluish  white  and  is  generally 
opaque.  The  most  popular  kind  is  straw-coloured 
and  semi-transparent.  A  few  specimens  are  of  a 
mottled  greenish  colour,  brown,  or  nearly  black; 
they  are  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  lighter 
varieties.  Rosaries  and  charms  of  various  sorts  are 
made  for  exportation  to  Mecca.  They  range  in  price 
from  a  couple  of  annas  to  a  hundred  rupees.  The 
refuse  from  the  work  is  reduced  to  powder  and  util- 
ised by  native  physicians  as  a  remedy  for  heartburn. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  everything,  whether 
solid  or  liquid,  is  sold  by  weight  in  Afghanistan.  In 
cloth  the  conventional  measure  in  the  bazaar  is  from 
the  top  of  the  middle  finger  to  the  point  of  the  elbow. 


261 


CHAPTER    XVI 

THE   ARMY 

PRIOR  to  the  reign  of  Dost  Mohammed  the 
defensive  power  of  Afghanistan  was  rep- 
resented by  an  association  of  tribes  whose 
chieftains  offered  to  the  Amir  of  Kabul,  as  circum- 
stances dictated,  a  more  or  less  willing  service.  Such 
a  system,  while  making  the  promotion  of  any  settled 
organisation  impossible,  was  satisfactory  only  so  long 
as  the  Amir  of  Kabul  was  able  to  rely  upon  the  fidel- 
ity of  the  Khans.  But  in  an  order  of  government 
in  which  priority  of  place  was  secured  by  dint  of 
might,  each  chief,  as  opportunity  offered,  rose  to 
proclaim  his  independence  of  Kabul.  By  reason  of 
these  constant  irruptions  of  disaffection  among  the 
tribes  composing  the  confederacy,  few  rulers  were  in 
a  better  position  than  Dost  Mohammed  to  realise 
the  disabilities  of  such  a  military  system. 

The  forces  over  which  he  exerted  complete  con- 
trol were  confined  to  the  Kabul  territory,  although 
in  addition  he  exercised  nominal  jurisdiction  over 
the  tribal  levies  of  the  khanates  of  Kandahar  and 
Herat.  These  divisions  of  the  available  forces  pre- 
sented the  following  effective  establishment: 

262 


THE    ARMY 

r 
KABtJIj  KANDAHAR  HERAT 

TERRITORY          TERRITORY         TERRITORY 

Mounted    21,000  12,000  12,000 

Dismounted 10,000  6,000  10,000 

Total 31,000  18,000  22,000 

At  the  moment,  the  fighting  machine  in  Afghani- 
stan was  composed  of  those  tribal  chiefs,  district  land- 
owners, and  priests  whose  influence  was  sufficient 
to  regulate  the  movement  of  any  particular  number 
of  followers.  At  the  first  news  of  war  the  leaders  of 
these  several  contingents  hurried  with  their  follow- 
ing to  some  central  camp,  the  united  strength  con- 
stituting the  army  of  the  district  ruler,  although  the 
component  units  of  such  a  force  owned  allegiance  to 
individual  district  chiefs  rather  than  to  any  supreme 
authority.  In  addition  to  this  combative  force  there 
was  usually  another  body  which,  although  not  drawn 
from  the  best  material  and  less  numerous,  was  pos- 
sessed of  greater  experience  than  the  main  follow- 
ing. Composed  of  men  who  were  attached  to  no 
individual  leader,  or  made  up  of  the  numbers  of 
some  border  ruffian,  these  auxiliaries  participated  in 
the  operations  for  the  purposes  of  loot  and  from  pure 
love  of  war  and  bloodshed.  In  each  case  their  weap- 
ons were  of  the  crudest  variety;  very  frequently  the 
dismounted  forces  were  armed  solely  with  swords, 
spears,  and  shields,  the  horsemen  carrying  match- 
locks, flintlocks,  or  ancient  pistols.  Every  one  was 
compelled  to  furnish  his  own  weapons,  the  mounted 
men  being  responsible  for  their  horses.  The  militia 
held  the  lands  on  condition  of  service  and  were  exempt 
from  all  taxes  on  land  except  the  tithe.     The  men 

263 


AFGHANISTAN 

were  born  fighters  and  each,  so  soon  as  he  could  wield 
a  spear  or  manage  a  fire-arm,  attached  himself  to 
some  district  chief.  No  regular  rate  of  pay  was 
made  by  the  leader  to  his  following,  who,  if  they 
failed  to  live  upon  their  plunder,  were  indemnified 
by  small  grants  of  land,  by  the  right  of  pasturage, 
and  by  permission  to  adopt  a  trade.  Upon  the  part 
of  the  chief,  too,  as  between  himself  and  the  Khan 
of  the  territory,  the  scale  of  remuneration  was  never 
fixed,  the  sum  varying  according  to  his  local  influ- 
ence and  the  number  of  men  he  could  bring  into 
the  field.  This  condition  of  affairs,  typical  of  most 
Asiatic  hordes  at  the  time,  had  always  prevailed 
in  Afghanistan.  The  success  against  other  native 
armies  of  such  a  system,  wherein  no  precautions 
were  observed  and  no  knowledge  of  military  opera- 
tions was  required,  was  due  to  the  great  elan  in 
attack  of  the  Afghans  and  to  their  imdoubted  cour- 
age, more  than  to  any  preconceived  notion  of  the 
art  of  war. 

In  addition  to  the  territories  of  Kandahar  and 
Herat  there  was  the  State  of  Balkli,  allied  with  but 
independent  of  Kabul  and  invested  in  Mohammed 
Afzul  Khan.  The  army  of  Balkh  was  commanded 
by  General  Shir  ^Mohammed  Khan,  an  officer  of  the 
Anglo-Indian  army  of  the  name  of  Campbell,  who 
had  been  captured  by  Dost  Mohammed  when  he 
had  defeated  Shah  Shu j ah  at  the  battle  of  Kan- 
dahar. The  influence  of  this  man,  who,  professing 
the  Mohammedan  faith,  rose  to  the  position  of 
Commander-in-Chief   of   the   Balkh   forces,  was  to 

264 


THE    ARMY 

become  a  determining  factor  in  the  evolution  of  the 
army  of  Afghanistan  from  its  tribal  state.  Love  of 
war  was  always  more  pronounced  in  the  Afghan 
tribes  than  among  other  Eastern  races;  and,  as  the 
profession  of  arms  to  them  was  in  the  nature  of  a 
trade,  expectations  of  a  quick  response  of  course 
prompted  the  suggestions  which  Lieutenant  Camp- 
bell made  to  the  Amir  of  Balkh.  While  every  credit 
must  be  given  to  the  wisdom  and  foresight  of  Mo- 
hammed Afzul  Khan,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
beginnings  of  the  present  military  system  of  Afghan- 
istan were  laid  by  this  adventurous  Englishman. 
Moreover,  it  was  due  to  the  influence  which  Camp- 
bell exercised  over  Abdur  Rahman,  the  son  of  Mo- 
hammed Afzul  Khan,  which  caused  the  former  to 
become  an  ardent  apostle  of  reform  in  military  mat- 
ters when  he  succeeded  to  the  throne. 

At  the  time  of  the  elevation  of  Campbell  to  the 
supreme  command  of  the  army  of  Balkh,  the  forces 
in  the  territory  were  divided  between  a  combined 
permanently  enlisted  body  and  a  militia  derived 
from  Uzbeg,  Durani,  and  Kabuli  tribes.  It  num- 
bered 29,500  men,  comprising: 

MOUNTED  DISMOUNTED  MILITIA 

7,000  7,500  15,000 

This  force  of  fighting  men,  ill-organised  and  untu- 
tored, was  deficient  in  central  control,  its  condition 
not  unnaturally  reflecting  the  disorder  actually  in- 
herent in  the  system.  Under  Campbell's  adminis- 
tration the  masses  of  tribal  levies  were  reduced  to 
an  organised  basis  which  contained  the  elements  of 

2G5 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  present  establishment.  The  mounted  and  dis- 
mounted sections  were  formed  into  cavalry  and  in- 
fantry' regiments;  while  the  eighty  guns,  which  were 
included  in  the  Balkh  army,  were  established  by  bat- 
teries and  an  elementary  knowledge  of  the  principles 
of  drill  and  tactics  was  imparted  to  the  troops. 

In  his  task  of  reform  Campbell  received  every  en- 
couragement. Although  Dost  Mohammed  himself 
made  no  alteration  in  the  Kabul  district,  he  watched 
with  interest  the  work  of  reorganisation.  Unfor- 
tunately Campbell  died  before  any  great  progress 
could  be  made,  his  demise  being  followed  within  a 
short  space  by  that  of  Dost  Mohammed  in  1863 
and  Mohammed  Afzul  Khan  in  1867.  Neverthe- 
less his  influence  was  abiding,  since  the  spectacle 
presented  by  the  Balkh  forces  prompted  Shir  Ali  to 
adopt  an  Anglo-Indian  model  as  the  working  basis 
for  his  reorganisation  of  the  Kabul  army.  In  the 
sixteen  years  of  his  reign,  between  1863-1879,  he 
continued  to  introduce  improvements  founded  upon 
Anglo-Indian  drill-books,  which  he  had  had  trans- 
lated into  Persian  and  Pushtu.  Batteries  of  field 
and  mountain  artillery,  and  regiments  of  horse  and 
foot  were  raised;  territorial  divisions  were  formed 
upon  paper,  and  field  columns,  whose  brigade  and 
regimental  units  corresponded  with  the  Anglo-Indian 
system,  were  created.  In  actual  practice  these  troops 
were  never  brigaded  together,  and  officers  and  men 
alike  were  ignorant  of  parade  and  musketry  exercises. 
Nevertheless,  if  their  notions  of  drill  were  vague, 
their  spirits  and  their  carriage  were  not  unmartial. 

266 


THE    ARMY 

The  nominal  strength  of  each  infantry  regiment 
was  800  men,  although  daily  parade  seldom  mustered 
more  than  600  men.  The  state  of  the  cavalry  regi- 
ments was  300  men,  the  complete  return  of  the  regu- 
lar forces  of  Afghanistan  at  this  epoch  being: 

Numbers  Average       Total        Artillery 

16  Regiments  of  Infantry 800  12,800 

3  Regiments  of  Cavalry 300  900 

Field  guns    67 

Mountain  guns 9 

Heavy  gims     4 

Mortar 1 

Total 13,700  81 

The  system  of  recruiting  for  these  regiments  was 
the  worst  conceivable.  Neither  conscription  nor  free 
enlistment,  it  was  little  better  than  the  forcible 
seizure  of  the  able-bodied  in  each  district,  the  men 
being  compelled  to  serve  on  pain  of  the  imprison- 
ment and  utter  ruin  of  their  families.  The  pay  of 
the  infantry  was  nominally  five  rupees  a  month,  with 
ten  rupees  in  each  year  deducted  for  clothing  and 
accoutrements.  The  distribution  of  the  remainder 
was  very  irregular  and  not  unusually  paid  in  grain, 
or  credited  to  their  families  at  home  on  account  of 
local  taxes.  Consequently  the  soldier,  often  finding 
himself  in  his  quarters  without  the  means  of  purchas- 
ing the  common  necessaries  of  life,  was  driven  to 
recoup  his  finances  by  highway  robbery,  a  delinquency 
which  the  officers  punished  —  by  sharing  in  the  spoil. 

These  troops  were  accoutred  with  the  discarded 
flint  muskets,  swords,  belts,  and  bayonets  of  the 
British  forces  in  India,  or  a  Kabul  imitation  of  these 

267 


AFGHANISTAN 

weapons.  Certain  companies  were  provided  with 
two-grooved  rifles,  constructed  from  models  carried 
off  by  deserters  from  some  one  or  other  of  our  frontier 
regiments.  The  uniforms  were  no  less  abominable, 
not  infrequently  representing  purchases  of  condemned 
stores  from  frontier  stations  which  had  been  dis- 
posed of  at  an  auction.  The  clothing  was  invariably 
procured  from  these  markets;  and,  as  a  consequence, 
native  officers  of  all  grades,  even  in  the  same  regi- 
ment, might  have  been  seen  in  every  imaginable 
British  habiliment,  from  a  naval  jacket  to  a  whip- 
per's-in  hunting  coat,  including  the  full  dress  of  a 
general  and  the  round  beaver  hat  of  a  civilian.  Brit- 
ish kit  was  very  popular,  and  its  possession  conferred 
exceptional  distinction  upon  the  lucky  owner. 

Of  the  horse  it  is  only  possible  to  say  that  in  all 
respects  they  were  a  bad  imitation  of  the  Indian  light 
cavalry,  reproducing  even  their  Hussar  saddles  and 
steel  scabbards.  Their  appointments,  equally  with 
the  infantry,  were  almost  hopeless  and  their  drill 
quite  unsuited  to  their  order.  Foot  drill  was  the 
conventional  exercise;  and,  since  all  horses  were  sent 
out  to  graze  during  the  summer  months,  mounted 
drill  was  practised  only  during  the  cold  weather, 
when  through  lack  of  food  the  animals  were  too 
poor  in  condition  to  be  put  through  their  facings. 
The  horses  were  undersized  and  generally  procured 
from  the  Turkoman  steppes,  but  man  and  beast 
w^ere  equally  valueless.  No  less  unsatisfactory  were 
the  Afghan  artillery,  although,  from  the  numerical 
strength  of  the  Amir's  ordnance,  a  very  false  idea 

268 


THE    ARMY 

might  be  formed  of  the  actual  value  of  his  artillery. 
Many  of  the  guns  were  useless;  for  others  there  was 
no  ammunition;  while  the  equipment  and  carriages 
of  the  field  guns  were  of  the  most  obsolete  pattern. 

Besides  these  so-called  troops,  the  Amir  had  always 
available  the  jezailchis,  who  w^ere  formerly  the  only 
infantry  in  the  country.  They  were  light  troops, 
armed  with  matchlock  and  jezail,  accustomed  to 
hill  warfare  and  perhaps  as  good  skirmishers  as  were 
to  be  found  at  this  time  in  Asia.  Experience  had 
taught  them  to  be  judges  of  ground  and  distance, 
while  instinct  made  them  chary  of  ambush.  These 
were  of  two  classes.  The  one  class  was  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Amir,  on  a  nominal  salary  of  five  rupees 
per  mensem,  which  was  paid  in  grain.  These  men 
were  armed  by  the  State  and  mustered  some  3500 
men,  employed  in  holding  forts  and  posts  through- 
out the  country.  They  were  commanded  by  Sab- 
bashis  and  Dahbashis,  captains  of  hundreds  and 
heads  over  tens,  who  received  a  proportionately 
higher  rate  of  pay.  The  other  class,  the  immediate 
following  of  the  different  chiefs,  may  be  considered 
as  a  local  militia.  They  were  assigned  rent-free  a 
piece  of  land  in  lieu  of  pay;  and,  as  a  rule,  these 
several  bodies  of  militia  numbered  in  each  instance 
between  1000  and  1500  men. 

The  Irregular  Afghan  Horse,  as  they  existed  at 
this  time,  are  even  more  difficult  than  the  jezailchis 
to  compute.  They  were  not  particularly  numer- 
ous, although  Kandahar  and  its  dependencies  could 
furnish  8000;  Ghazni,  5000;  Kabul,  including  Jcla- 

269 


AFGHANISTAN 

labad,  Logar,  and  the  Koh-i-Daman,  15,000;  while 
Balkh,  with  its  Uzbcg  population,  returned  10,000. 
These  men  were  the  equal  of  any  undisciplined  horse- 
men in  Asia;  mounted  upon  small  but  wiry  horses, 
carrying  a  perfect  arsenal  of  weapons,  among  which 
shield,  spear,  matchlock,  sword,  pistol,  and  knife 
were  prominent,  they  were  always  rough  and  inva- 
riably ready  for  the  field.  Capable  of  undergoing 
great  fatigue  and  exceedingly  harassing  to  a  flying 
foe,  they  were,  when  led  by  a  determined  chief,  any- 
thing but  contemptible  in  a  melee. 

The  establishment  of  the  regular  and  auxiliary 
forces,  as  they  existed  at  this  date,  boasted  no  com- 
missariat department.  In  districts  where  the  reve- 
nue was  paid  in  grain  a  certain  proportion  was 
allotted  to  each  fort;  if  the  troops  were  on  the  march, 
orders  upon  the  headmen  of  the  various  villages  were 
issued,  the  villages  being  credited  w^ith  the  amount 
of  grain,  etc.,  supplied  when  the  revenue  came  to  be 
collected.  Upon  any  occasion  where  the  whole  avail- 
able force  was  collected  en  masse  each  district  had 
to  furnish  a  certain  amount  of  grain  as  well  as  its 
fighting  contingent,  the  daily  ration  of  every  man 
being  estimated  at  one  seer  of  flour.  So  long  as  this 
supply  lasted  the  men  considered  themselves  bound 
to  remain  with  their  chiefs;  but  the  moment  that 
the  issue  ceased  there  was  a  general  dissolution  of 
the  forces.  Similarly,  there  was  no  settled  transport 
system  nor  ordnance  supply,  arrangements,  hap-haz- 
ard  in  the  extreme,  rising  as  occasion  required.  In 
many  respects  the  changing  conditions  of  military 

270 


THE    ARMY 

life,  in  the  absence  of  specific  reforms,  brought  no 
remedy  of  abuses  which,  existing  under  Dost  Mo- 
hammed, found  opportunity  for  increased  activity 
in  the  new  order  of  affairs.  The  inevitable  break- 
down occurred  and  at  the  first  tests,  imposed  by  the 
actions  at  Peiwar  Kotal  and  AH  Mas j id,  the  entire 
machine  went  to  pieces.  Later,  at  Charasiab  and 
Ahmad  Khel,  the  Afghan  array  had  returned  to  its 
own  style  of  fighting  and,  under  tribal  leaders,  ill- 
disciplined,  yet  courageous  and  determined,  fought 
valiantly  and  well. 

In  spite  of  the  excellent  beginnings  which  had 
been  made  by  Shir  Ali,  the  condition  of  the  army  at 
the  time  of  his  accession  placed  a  very  heavj^  burden 
upon  the  shoulders  of  Abdur  Rahman.  Handicapped 
by  internal  dissensions,  it  was  not  until  he  had  es- 
tablished as  paramount  his  authority  over  the  tribes 
that  he  was  able  to  turn  attention  to  the  crude  struc- 
ture which  had  been  built  by  his  predecessor.  Elab- 
orating the  handiwork  of  Shir  Ali  by  many  personal 
touches,  he  gradually  shaped  the  whole  system  to 
his  own  mould.  To  every  regiment  of  cavalry  and 
infantry  he  attached  complementary  engineer,  med- 
ical, and  commissariat  details,  so  that  each  unit  was 
complete  in  itself  and  independent  of  his  brigade. 
In  a  measure,  and  as  the  outcome  of  this  initiative, 
Abdur  Rahman  became  the  actual  founder  of  the 
army  of  Afghanistan.  Recognising  the  many  defi- 
ciencies in  the  military  system,  he  increased  its  poten- 
tial significance  by  substituting  for  the  old  feudal 
levies  one  central  army,  paid,  created,  and  controlled 

271 


\ 


AFGHANISTAN 

dirocUy  b}'  himself.  AVitli  implacable  severity  he 
chastised  his  enemies,  breaking  up  their  powers  of 
resistance  and  developing  his  own  position  until 
the  foundations  of  his  earlier  work  became  the  per- 
manent supports  to  a  militarj'-  autocracy.  Regiment 
after  regiment  was  added  to  the  permanent  strength 
of  his  military  establishment  as  opportunity  offered; 
while,  in  addition,  50,000  pack-mules  and  pack- 
ponies  were  set  aside  as  a  park  of  transport,  and 
immense  reserves  of  grain  were  stored  in  readiness 
at  Herat,  Kandahar,  and  Kabul.  Monthly  pay- 
sheets  were  drawn  up,  by  which  generals  of  the  first 
class  received  600  Kabuli  rupees  monthly,  a  briga- 
dier 250,  a  colonel  of  cavalry  200,  a  major  120, 
captains  of  cavalry  80,  of  infantry  and  artillery  30, 
down  to  corporals  of  foot,  who  received  10  rupees. 
The  rank  and  file  were  paid  partly  in  kind,  a  trooper 
getting  16  rupees  in  cash  and  four  rupees'  worth  of 
grain,  a  private  of  foot  5  rupees  in  cash  and  three 
rupees'  worth  of  grain.  Every  regiment  was  to 
have  a  chaplain  (mullah),  a  physician  (hakim),  and 
a  surgeon  (yarrah).  To  some  extent  bribery  and 
corruption  were  suppressed.  A  corps  of  signallers 
was  formed  and  a  body  of  sappers  and  miners  in- 
structed in  the  art  of  entrenchment,  bridge-building, 
and  road-making.  Further,  the  gunners  were  taught 
the  technique  of  their  materiel,  while  the  Kabul  regi- 
ments were  put  through  courses  of  musketry  and 
the  elemental  mysteries  of  tactics  and  strategy  were 
disclosed  to  their  officers. 

So  much  was  attempted  by  Abdur  Rahman  that 

272 


THE    ARMY 

he  well  may  be  forgiven  for  leaving  to  his  successor 
execution  of  detail.  Within  a  few  months  of  his 
accession  the  strength  of  the  army  in  Kabul,  Kanda- 
har, Herat,  and  beyond  the  Hindu  Kush  consisted  of 
58,740  men  with  182  guns. 


REGULARS 

CAVALRY 

INFANTRY                 ARTILLERY 

GUNS 

9750 

30,890                            1600 

IRREGULARS 

18Sd 

TRIBAL  FOOT 

TRIBAL   HORSE 

TOTAL 

9000 

7500 

58,740 

Weak  in  artillery  —  there  being  few  trained  gun- 
ners —  the  cannon,  partly  of  English,  partly  of 
native  manufacture  and  of  various  ages  and  patterns, 
were  the  time-honoured  relics  of  Dost  INIohammed 
and  Shir  Ali.  The  infantry  rifles  of  the  regulars 
also  were  of  different  makes,  varying  from  the  old 
two-grooved  Brunswick  to  the  Martini-Henry.  The 
tribal  forces  were  largely  armed  with  matchlocks. 
Assisted  by  the  subsidies  which  he  received  from  the 
Government  of  India,  Abdur  Rahman  swept  away 
the  rubbish  and  collected  an  immense  stock  of  modern 
ordnance  supplies.  Over  and  above  the  quantity 
held  against  the  immediate  mobilisation  of  the  stand- 
ing forces,  by  importation  and  manufacture  he  piled 
up  a  vast  reserve  of  rifles,  field-pieces,  and  guns 
of  large  calibre  with  their  requisite  ammunition, 
doubtless  very  varied  in  their  character  and  includ- 
ing every  sort  of  pattern  from  Krupp  field-pieces 
to  Maxim,  Nordenfeldt,  and  Ilotchkiss  quick-firers. 

273 


AFGHANISTAN 

For  this  purpose  he  erected  in  Kabul  itself  the  neces- 
sary works,  imparting  to  the  position  of  Afghanistan 
by  these  means  and  for  the  first  time  in  its  history 
some  element  of  security,  and  creating  an  army  which 
required  only  to  be  supervised  with  the  same  watch- 
fulness by  his  successor  to  attain  ultimately  as  near 
to  perfection  as  any  purely  native  organisation  can 
arrive.  Ordnance  factories  —  with  a  weekly  output 
of  2  guns,  175  rifles,  and  a  varying  quantity  of  small 
arms  amnmnition  —  workshops,  and  an  arsenal  ex- 
isting to-day  in  Kabul  prove  the  inflexible  deter- 
mination of  his  plans.  In  furtherance  of  them  it 
was  his  idea  to  fashion  an  army  which,  apportioned 
between  regulars  and  tribal  levies,  would  number 
1,000,000  men.  There  was  to  be  a  permanent  regu- 
lar force  of  300,000  men,  with  an  established  ammu- 
nition reserve  of  500  rounds  to  each  field-piece  and 
5000  rounds  to  every  rifle.  Moreover,  many  months 
before  his  death  the  ordnance  supplies,  amassed  in 
Kabul,  sufficed  for  a  very  large  proportion  of  such 
a  force,  at  the  same  time  exceeding  the  amount 
necessary  for  the  requirements  of  the  existing  field 
and  garrison  forces.  Had  Abdur  Rahman  only  sur- 
vived a  few  years  longer,  it  is  indisputable  that  a 
force  of  a  million  fighting  men,  more  or  less  trained 
but  at  least  efficiently  armed,  would  have  been 
secured,  although  it  may  be  doubted  whether,  save 
under  the  press  of  dire  necessity,  he  would  have 
ventured  to  issue  weapons  to  them  or  to  place  more 
than  a  quarter  of  this  number  actually  in  the  field. 
At  his  demise  the  numbers  of  the  forces  available 

274 


THE    ARMY 

were  considerably  below  the  million  standard.  At 
that  time  the  peace  strength  of  the  regular  army  was 
estimated  at  150,000  men,  distributed  between  the 
military  centres  of  Herat,  Kabul,  Kandahar,  Mazar-i- 
Sharif,  Jelalabad,  Asmai,  the  region  of  the  Upper 
Oxus,  and  in  detachments  on  frontier  duty  along 
the  Russo-Afghan,  Perso-Afghan,  and  Indo-Afghan 
boundaries. 

The  many  flaws  in  the  system  which  Abdur  Rah- 
man had  created  were  emphasised  at  his  death,  in 
part  by  the  indifference  of  Habib  Ullah  to  matters 
military,  but  in  the  main  by  organic  diflSculties  em- 
anating from  reactionary  influences  in  the  environ- 
ment of  the  throne.  Broadly  speaking,  the  army 
and  administration  of  ^Afghanistan  were  too  cen- 
tralised to  be  continuous  unless  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment had  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  man  as  fearless 
and  able  as  Abdur  Rahman  was.  Habib  Ullah  is  a 
man  of  different  mould;  and  as  a  consequence  on  the 
death  of  Abdur  Rahman  the  absolutism  of  his  rule 
suffered  material  contraction. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  late  Amir,  while 
evolving  out  of  a  heterogeneous  collection  of  warring 
tribes  a  settled  and  independent  country,  failed  to 
bequeath  to  his  son  any  portion  of  his  own  singular 
abilities.  As  a  consequence  the  order  of  govern- 
ment in  Kabul  is  neither  so  unquestioned  nor 
substantial  as  it  was,  for  the  men  whose  services 
assisted  Abdur  Rahman  to  effect  his  life's  work  have 
dropped  out  —  from  death  or  through  inal)ility  to 
serve  Habib  Ullah.     Faults,  inherent  in  the  char- 

275 


AFGHANISTAN 

acter  of  the  Afghans  and  particularly  prominent  in 
the  present  Amir,  have  thus  measured  the  success 
which  befell  Abdur  Rahman  by  the  span  of  that 
ruler's  life,  until  it  is  really  but  Httle  more  than  the 
shell  of  the  former  edifice  which  now  remains. 

Deprived  of  the  inspiring  genius  of  Abdur  Rah- 
man, within  the  five  years  which  have  elapsed  since 
his  death  there  is  every  ground  to  believe  that  the 
army  has  fallen  away  in  efficiency  as  well  as  in 
numbers,  and  that  the  w^ork  of  reorganisation  largely 
requires  to  be  repeated.  In  a  measure  the  Afghans 
retain  at  the  present  time  their  old  characteristics  — 
their  love  of  their  own  country  and  their  hatred  of 
alien  races;  but,  through  lapse  of  time  and  their  in- 
tercourse on  the  one  hand  with  the  Russians  and  in 
the  other  direction  with  India,  they  are  liable  to 
flock  to  the  standard  of  the  Amir  less  than  they 
were.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  to-day  Afghan- 
istan reproduces  the  condition  of  a  settled  country, 
possessing  a  population  much  more  peaceful  than 
were  the  inhabitants  a  generation  ago.  Moreover, 
through  the  penetrating  associations  of  prosperity 
and  through  many  years  of  peace  the  warlike  in- 
stincts of  the  tribes  have  become  numbed,  while  their 
martial  ardour  has  evaporated,  requiring  constant 
amelioration  of  the  conditions  of  service  by  way  of 
stimulating  their  military  zeal.  Increases  of  pay  and 
more  generous  rations  have  been  conceded  in  the 
past  and,  lately,  attempts  have  been  made  to  soothe 
the  susceptibihties  of  the  officers.  Habib  Ullah  has 
ordained  that  for  the  future  promotions  will  go  by 

276 


THE    ARMY 

seniority,  although  the  system  of  selection,  where  it 
is  concerned  with  posts  which  are  hereditary  in  fam- 
ilies connected  with  the  Royal  House,  will  not  be 
altered.  As  a  sop  to  the  feelings  of  the  rank  and 
file  the  class-company  system  is  to  be  enforced,  the 
men  of  the  different  tribes  being  incorporated  regi- 
mentally  under  their  own  tribal  leaders.  In  this 
direction,  too,  it  is  of  interest  to  note  that  every 
cantonment  will  be  provided  with  a  garrison  mullah 
who,  on  Fridays,  will  read  prayers  before  the  as- 
sembled troops  and  address  them  on  Saints'  Days, 
while  teachers  in  religious  instruction  are  to  be 
attached  to  each  regimental  company. 

Lately,  Habib  Ullah  has  shown  signs  of  awaken- 
ing to  the  responsibilities  of  his  position;  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that,  under  pressure  from  recent  political 
circumstances,  he  may  abandon  the  foolish  indul- 
gence to  which  hitherto  he  has  been  a  slave.  Indica- 
tions of  this  spirit  are  not  very  pronounced,  but  their 
manifestation  does  not  come  a  moment  too  soon. 
In  the  main  they  are  associated  with  military  matters, 
although  certain  measures  deal  exclusively  with  the 
administration.  Among  the  former,  orders  have  been 
given  to  the  leather  factories  in  Kabul  to  manufac- 
ture 300,000  sets  of  infantry  equipment  and  an  agent 
has  been  despatched  to  India  to  purchase  gear  for 
the  mounted  branches  of  the  service.  At  best  these 
activities  are  no  promise  of  an  abiding  interest  in 
his  service,  and,  indeed,  they  are  discounted  by  his 
refusal  to  hearken  to  advice.  At  the  present  time 
the  army  of  Afghanistan,  in  its  existing  condition, 

277 


AFGHANISTAN 

admittedly  possesses  in  a  high  degree  the  qiiahties 
of  endurance,  courage,  and  mobility;  but,  in  spite  of 
its  modern  guise,  it  lacks  discipline  and  cohesion  and, 
as  a  fighting  machine,  is  liable  upon  these  grounds  to 
be  thrown  quickly  out  of  gear.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  observation  may  perhaps  be  hazarded 
that  it  would  be  as  well,  before  equipping  it  with 
first-class  material,  to  make  sure  that  the  men  were 
sufficiently  organised  to  understand  its  use.  At  pres- 
ent modern  weapons  are  unknown  to  the  great  bulk 
of  the  forces  of  Afghanistan;  and  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  the  absence  of  this  qualit\^  makes  it  more  of  a 
menace  to  itself  than  to  an  enemy.  Hitherto  there 
has  been  greater  variety  than  method  in  the  Afghan 
military  equipment,  irregularity  of  pattern  distin- 
guishing alike  rifle,  field-piece,  and  ammunition, 
while  the  education  of  the  officers  and  the  training 
of  the  men  has  been  neglected. 

The  continuation  of  these  imperfections  is  due 
primarily  to  the  inability  of  the  Amir  of  Afghani- 
stan to  rely  upon  the  loyalty  of  his  troops.  At  the 
same  time  their  existence  appertains  to  every^  Orien- 
tal army  which  is  placed  solely  in  native  custody. 
They  have  always  been  a  feature  of  the  Afghan  ser- 
\'ice.  The  condition  of  the  garrison  in  the  capital 
perhaps  reveals  some  little  superiority  over  those 
which  are  placed  farther  afield,  but  it  can  be  affirmed 
quite  truly  that  the  military  qualities  of  Afghanistan 
proceed  entirely  from  the  inborn  fanaticism  of  its 
people  and  not  from  the  practical  organisation  of 
its    active    state.     Nevertheless    under    conditions 

278 


THE    ARMY 

applicable  to  mountain  warfare  the  Afghan  army 
could  become  an  invaluable  auxiliary;  although  its 
capacity,  as  well  as  its  determination,  to  offer  any 
prolonged  resistance  are  matters  of  doubt.  Defects 
could  be  removed  by  reorganisation;  good  qualities 
enhanced  by  careful  training  under  British  officers 
or  by  the  despatch  of  selected  Afghan  officers  and 
men  for  training  with  our  own  troops. 

In  spite  of  the  obduracy  of  Habib  L  llah  over  this 
point,  he  has  made  known  his  intention  of  falling 
back  upon  the  support  of  the  Indian  Government 
when  his  own  arms  have  been  defeated.  This  con- 
tingency, which  is  liable  to  arise  at  the  outset  of 
a  war  with  any  foreign  power,  imposes  upon  the 
Government  of  India  a  thankless  burden,  in  no  way 
lessened  by  the  proposal  of  the  Amir  to  create  in 
Kabul  an  Afghan  Staff  College,  and  the  determina- 
tion of  the  Imperial  Government  to  avoid  insistence 
upon  what  is,  by  no  means,  an  unreasonable  precau- 
tion. As  matters  rest  at  present,  unless  change  is 
introduced,  the  preposterous  conceit  which  distin- 
guishes the  Afghans  is  destined  to  receive  an  un- 
welcome shock.  Nevertheless  the  Amir  cannot  be 
persuaded  to  place  his  military  affairs  in  the  hands 
of  the  Indian  Government;  since,  now  that  the  Jap- 
anese have  beaten  the  Russians  and,  in  the  mind  of 
the  Amir,  the  Imperial  Government  is  frightened  at 
the  Russian  Government,  the  Afghans  argue,  having 
defeated  British  arms,  that  they  are  now  superior  to 
the  Japanese.  Therefore  they  deny  us  the  posses- 
sion of  any  point  of  advantage  in  their  country,  a 

279 


AFGHANISTAN 

consummation  which,  while  not  quite  that  towards 
which  our  thplomacy  has  been  directed,  may  be 
ascribed  to  the  results,  in  combination,  of  a  policy  of 
friendly  missions  and  half  measures.  Now  that  we 
have  given  Ilabib  Ullah  permission  to  import  with- 
out check  unlimited  supplies  of  arms  and  ammuni- 
tion the  disadvantages  of  such  a  situation  increase 
rather  than  diminish;  as  it  exists  so  close  to  the 
Indian  frontier  and  in  a  way  in  which  it  cannot  be 
controlled  by  the  Indian  Government,  it  behooves  the 
Imperial  Government  to  come  to  a  definite  decision 
at  once  with  regard  to  its  line  of  action  in  relation 
to  Afghanistan. 

Abdur  Rahman  did  not  confine  his  work  of  reorgan- 
isation solely  to  the  military  system  of  Afghanistan. 
He  devoted  great  attention  to  the  military  roads  of 
the  State,  realising  that  a  system  of  communications 
was  as  important  as  a  well-equipped  and  efficiently 
organised  army.  Kabul,  as  the  capital,  was  united 
with  Badakshan  on  the  east,  with  Turkestan  on  the 
north,  and  with  Kandahar  and  Herat  on  the  south 
and  west.  Prior  to  these  w'orks  certain  native  roads 
did  exist  between  the  several  centres;  but  it  was  due 
to  the  activity  and  initiative  of  the  late  Amir  that 
improvements  were  introduced,  or  altogether  new 
lines  of  communication  opened.  Undeterred  by  the 
difficulties  which  beset  his  engineers  and  as  an  index 
to  the  consistent  vigour  with  which  he  assisted  the 
development  and  execution  of  his  policy,  he  threw 
roads  across  the  Hindu  Kush,  facilitating  by  these 
means  not  only  the  trend  of  inter-provincial  trade, 

280 


THE    ARMY 

but  the  pacification  and  administration  of  his  Prov- 
inces. In  addition  to  these  strategic  roads,  he  im- 
proved the  trade  routes  which  led  into  the  country 
from  the  Trans-Oxus,  India,  and  Persia.  In  the  south 
the  Khyber,  Kurram,  and  the  Gomul  routes  received 
notice;  in  the  north  there  were  the  routes  from  Rus- 
sian Turkestan  leading  through  well-known  centres 
to  points  of  admission  upon  the  Afghan  border. 
After  the  subjugation  of  Kafiristan  he  took  the 
precaution  of  making  a  military  road  through  that 
country  from  north  to  south,  thus  opening  up  com- 
munication with  the  Kunar  Valley,  and  Jelalabad, 
where  considerable  numbers  of  troops  are  always 
stationed.  Further,  he  directed  that  it  should  even- 
tually be  carried  over  the  western  Hindu  Kush  so  as 
to  give  a  better  route  to  Kataghan,  Badakshan,  and 
the  upper  Oxus  Valley.  This  portion  of  the  work 
was  finished  in  March,  1904.  The  northern  termi- 
nus of  the  road  is  at  Faizabad,  the  principal  town 
of  Badakshan,  where  caravan  routes  meet  from 
Bokhara  on  the  north-west,  the  Pamirs  and  Kashgar 
on  the  north-east.  The  Afghan  Government  has 
constructed  serais  at  all  the  halting-places,  and  cara- 
vans are  encouraged  to  use  the  road  in  preference 
to  that  through  Chitral. 

Curiously  enough,  in  another  direction,  the  con- 
struction of  fortresses,  Abdur  Rahman  was  more 
neglectful.  If  he  improved  the  lines  of  communica- 
tion and  reorganised  the  state  of  the  army,  he  built 
but  few  forts,  relj'ing  almost  entirely  upon  those 
which  already  had    been    constructed.     Nowadays, 

281 


AFGHANISTAN 

with  the  exception  of  the  Kabul  positions,  Dehdadi, 
^lazar-i-Sharif  and  Baldak  Spin,  the  two  latter  of 
which  he  built  to  command  the  approaches  to  Balkh 
and  Kandahar,  there  are  no  modern  forts  in  the 
kingdom.  Those  that  do  exist  are  made  of  mud  and 
are  of  insufficient  strength  to  withstand  bombard- 
ment. The  great  majority  serve  merely  as  garrison 
depots  and  are  without  interest  save  as  interesting 
ruins. 

Note:  The  following  information  concerning  the 
trade  in  fire-arms  in  Afghanistan  is  furnished  by  the 
American  Consul-General,  William  H.  Michael,  of 
Calcutta: 

It  appears  that  on  the  Persian  border  of  Afghanistan  a 
single-loading  rifle,  of  the  type  lately  imported  in  such  large 
numbers,  is  priced  at  from  $6  to  $6.75;  a  Martini  rifle,  $5 
to  $6.75;  a  ten-chamber  revolver,  $8;  and  a  magazine  rifle, 
$16.75.  By  the  time  these  weapons  reach  Kabul  their  value 
has  greatly  increased,  viz.,  a  single-loader,  $80;  a  Martini- 
Henry,  $80;  a  ten-chamber  revolver,  $33;  and  a  magazine 
rifle,  $165.  In  the  Pathan  valleys  the  price  is  again  increased, 
and  at  present  as  much  as  $264  is  being  given  for  a  magazine 
rifle  with  a  packet  of  ammunition  thrown  in,  and  a  revolver 
with  a  few  rounds  of  ammunition  fetches  $100.  The  types 
of  rifle  made  in  the  Kohat  Pass  and  elsewhere  are  priced  at 
about  $30.  There  are  several  factories,  one  in  the  village  of 
Shiadatalab,  another  at  Sahibuddin,  and  others  in  the  Khunki 
Valley.  Government  rifles  are  copied  as  exactly  as  possible. 
Many  Punjabi  mechanics  are  employed,  but  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  Pathans  at  work,  too,  and  their  workshops  are  not 
wanting  in  tools  or  machinery. 


'282 


CHAPTER  XVII 

KABUL:  ITS  PALACES  AND   COURT  LIFE 

THE  road  from  Kandahar  to  Kabul  in  its 
present  condition  is  one  of  those  permanent 
improvements  with  which  the  late  Abdur 
Rahman  endowed  Afghanistan.  Under  the  aegis  of 
that  energetic  ruler  the  old  caravan  routes  between 
Kandahar  and  Kabul,  and  Kabul  and  Herat,  were 
replaced  by  first-class  military  communications,  the 
elders  of  the  villages  in  the  several  districts  trav- 
ersed being  held  responsible  for  their  security.  The 
road  to  Kabul  runs  north-east  from  Kandahar  and 
the  distance  is  315  miles.  The  two  points  of  im- 
portance are  Kelat-i-Ghilzai,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Tarnak  River  and  85  miles  north-east  of  Kanda- 
har, and  Ghaznl,  225  miles  north-east  of  Kandahar 
and  78  miles  south-west  of  Kabul. 

There  is  no  town  at  Kelat-i-Ghilzai;  but  there  are 
two  small  walled  villages  not  far  from  the  fort  to  the 
north-west  and  a  few  nomadic  encampments  upon 
the  surrounding  plain.  The  fort  stands  upon  an  iso- 
lated plateau  which  in  places  is  very  steep.  There 
are  two  gateways,  respectively  situated  upon  the 
northern  and  southern  faces  of  the  work.  The  quar- 
ters of  the  garrison  are  arranged  along  the  eastern 

283 


AFGHANISTAN 

and  western  faces  and  a  battery  of  four  guns  is  posted 
upon  a  neighbouring  height.  The  garrison  is  not 
hirge  and  the  defences  have  suffered  from  neglect. 
There  is  good  water  from  springs  within  the  perim- 
eter of  the  fort;  but  the  position  is  endangered  by 
the  existence  of  certain  features  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  which  command  the  walls,  and  also  by  the 
facilities  for  cover  offered  by  the  character  of  the 
approaches.  The  bazaar  is  small,  containing  fifty 
shops :  in  addition  there  are  several  Government  gran- 
aries and  a  residence  for  the  Governor. 

Ghazni,  the  capital  of  the  Ghilzai  country  and  the 
principal  centre  between  Kandahar  and  Kabul, 
occupies  a  very  important  point,  since  it  commands 
the  road  through  the  Gomul  Pass  to  Dera  Ismail 
Khan.  From  its  strategical  position,  too,  it  must 
be  considered  the  pivot  to  any  line  of  operations 
against  an  enemy  advancing  from  the  west  or  north; 
while  its  possession  in  the  hands  of  an  Indian  army 
would  place  such  a  force  astride  one  of  the  most 
important  channels  of  communication  in  the  State. 
It  is  situated  upon  the  left  bank  of  the  Ghazni  River, 
on  level  ground  between  the  river  and  the  termina- 
tion of  a  spur,  running  east  and  west  from  the  Gilkoh 
Range  7730  feet  above  sea-level.  The  place  spreads 
itself  out  to  the  south  and  east,  but  the  river  checks 
its  expansion  on  the  w^est,  the  stream  leaving  but  a 
confined  space  between  its  left  bank  and  the  knoll 
where  the  citadel  stands.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  high 
wall,  built  upon  the  top  of  a  mound,  in  part  nat- 
ural and  in  part  artificial.     The  wall  is  of  composite 

284 


PALACES    AND    COURT    LIFE 

construction,  stone  and  brick  masonry  laid  in  mud 
having  been  employed  in  its  erection.  It  is  flanked 
at  irregular  intervals  by  towers  and  possesses  a  total 
circumference,  inclusive  of  the  citadel,  of  1750  yards. 
The  citadel  is  situated  at  the  north  angle  of  the 
town,  upon  an  abrupt,  detached  knoll  where  the 
hills  terminate.  It  lies  150  feet  above  the  plain  and 
dominates  the  city  completely.  Its  defences  are  a 
high  masonry  wall,  loopholed  and  provided  with  a 
parapet,  but  no  rampart  save  the  natural  hill.  There 
are  four  towers  at  the  angles,  but  these  are  small 
and  insignificant.  The  citadel  has  no  other  strength 
than  that  afforded  by  its  commanding  situation  and 
formidable  slopes;  the  area  of  the  summit  of  the  knoll 
is  limited  and  the  buildings  are  not  adapted  to  shell- 
fire.  The  town  and  citadel  are  both  commanded  by 
hills  to  the  north,  but  the  former  is  in  a  measure 
sheltered  by  the  position  of  the  latter.  The  supply 
of  water  is  unreliable  and  there  is  only  one  well  within 
the  walls.  The  view  from  the  citadel  is  extensive, 
but  by  no  means  inviting,  as  the  plain  is  very  in- 
differently furnished  with  villages.  There  are  very 
numerous  shrines  — 197  being  the  number  given  — 
which  are  surrounded  by  orchards,  vineyards,  and 
small  corn-fields.  Excepting  along  the  course  of  the 
river  the  plain  is  bare  and  empty,  although  it  is 
broken  up  by  the  irrigation  channels  which  cross  the 
road  at  intervals  of  8  and  10  miles.  Distant  hills 
extend  in  low  ranges  of  bare  rock.  The  country 
skirting  them  is  a  waste  of  stone  and  scrub,  in  the 
possession   of   wandering   Ghilzais   whose   flocks   of 

285 


AFGHANISTAN 

goats,  sheep,  and  camels  share  the  pastures  with  wild 
deer,  wolves,  foxes,  and  hares.  The  black-hair  tents 
of  these  nomads  of  the  desert,  pitched  in  the  shel- 
tered hollows  of  its  surface  for  protection  from  the 
keen  westerly  wind,  impart  to  the  scene  its  sole  sign 
of  human  habitation. 

The  town  itself  is  dirty.  The  thoroughfares,  lined 
with  houses  several  storeys  in  height,  are  narrow, 
dark,  and  irregular.  Near  the  base  of  the  citadel, 
upon  its  easterly  and  westerly  aspect,  there  is  a  small 
open  space  varying  from  100  yards  to  150  yards; 
upon  the  southern  side  the  houses  crowd  close  up  to 
the  rock.  From  the  Klianah  gate  to  the  Kandahar 
or  Bazaar  gate  a  street  runs  with  some  pretensions 
to  uniformity  of  breadth  and  directness  of  course. 
Another  leads  north-east  to  the  open  space  upon  the 
west  of  the  citadel,  while  from  the  Kabul  gate  there 
is  communication  by  several  narrow  and  somewhat 
tortuous  lanes.  The  houses  are  built  of  mud;  only 
in  rare  instances  do  they  possess  domed  roofs. 

The  population  fluctuates  according  to  the  season 
and  the  amount  of  trade  passing  into  India.  It  sel- 
dom rises  above  8000  people  nor  falls  much  below 
3000  people.  The  inhabitants  are  largely  drawn  from 
the  Nasir,  Suliman  Khel,  and  other  Ghilzai  clans, 
who  are  concerned  with  the  through  caravan  trade 
via  the  Gomul,  together  with  a  certain  proportion 
of  Duranis  and  Tajiks.  There  are,  also,  250  families 
of  Hazara  labourers  and  perhaps  200  Hindoo  shop- 
keepers, bankers,  and  traders.  The  community  in 
I    Ghazni  is  very  mixed,  ignorant,  superstitious,  and, 

286 


PALACES   AND    COURT    LIFE 

if  the  Hindoo  element  is  excepted,  without  wealth. 
Hindoos  in  Ghazni  are  required  to  wear  tight  trou- 
sers instead  of  loose  ones,  a  black  cap  in  place  of  a 
turban,  and  to  pay  a  capitation  tax.  Upon  compli- 
ance with  these  restrictions  they  receive  protection 
and  contrive  to  control  the  trade  between  India  and 
Afghanistan.  The  chief  trade  of  the  place  is  in  corn, 
fruits,  and  madder,  all  of  which  are  largely  produced 
in  the  district.  Wool  and  camel's-hair  cloth  are 
brought  into  the  market  from  the  adjoining  Hazara 
country;  and,  since  the  British  occupation  of  Wano 
and  the  opening  up  of  the  Gomul  Pass,  local  com- 
merce has  developed.  Agriculturally  the  district  is 
a  rich  one.  Large  crops  of  wheat  and  barley  are 
obtained,  the  capital  itself  drawing  no  small  propor- 
tion of  its  grain  supply  from  this  market.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  land  under  cereal  cultivation  there  are 
magnificent  pastures,  while  the  fruit  is  no  less  cele- 
brated. The  excellence  of  the  apples  surpasses  that 
of  those  grown  at  Kandahar,  although  the  Kandahar 
melons,  an  especial  production  of  that  city,  are 
superior  to  the  variety  which  are  reared  at  Ghazni; 
For  corn  and  apricots  Kabul  makes  a  heavy  demand 
upon  Ghazni;  but  the  madder  grown  in  the  vicinity 
is  almost  all  exported  to  India,  while  tobacco,  corn, 
and  the  castor-oil  plant  are  grown  only  for  home 
consumption. 

The  climate  of  Ghazni  for  several  months  of  the 
year  is  very  cold,  the  snow  lying  upon  the  ground 
from  November  until  the  middle  of  March.  Frosts 
fall  early  in  October  and  the  ice  lasts  until  mid-day; 

287 


AFGHANISTAN 

frc^in  November  for  many  weeks  there  is  no  thaw  at 
all.  In  December  the  country  is  covered  with  3 
feet  of  snow  which  remains  on  the  ground  until 
March.  The  spring  is  genial  and,  as  the  fields 
become  green,  flowers  appear  on  the  plain.  Rain 
falls  irregularly  and  only  for  a  few  days,  but  the 
bane  of  the  climate  is  the  dust  which  comes  up  with 
the  westerly  winds.  In  summer  the  heat  is  less  than 
that  which  prevails  at  Kabul  and  Kandahar.  The 
severity  of  the  winter  months  entails  as  a  rule  heavy 
mortality  among  the  people,  the  lack  of  fuel  being 
the  principal  cause  of  the  deaths.  The  flocks  of 
sheep  and  goats  and  the  droves  of  camels  also  suffer; 
and,  as  there  is  a  large  nomadic  population  in  the 
district,  the  distress  is  not  confined  to  the  limits  of 
the  town.  Indeed,  the  Ghazni  centre  experiences 
a  higher  rate  of  mortality  than  anywhere  else  in 
Afghanistan. 

Kabul  is  situated  at  the  western  extremity  of  a 
spacious  plain  in  an  angle  formed  by  the  approach  of 
two  converging  heights,  the  Asmai  and  the  Shere 
Darwaza,  with  which  the  Takht-i-Shah  is  joined  by 
a  narrow  ridge  7  miles  above  the  confluence  of  the 
Logar  and  Kabul  Rivers.  The  elevation  of  these 
three  hills  are:  Asmai,  6790  feet;  Shere  Darwaza, 
7166  feet;  and  the  Takht-i-Shah,  7530  feet.  The  city 
is  about  3  miles  in  circumference,  but  there  are  no 
walls  round  it  at  the  present  time.  Formerly  it  was 
encircled  by  walls  constructed  of  sun-baked  bricks 
and  mud.  Traces  of  the  wall  may  be  seen  in  many 
places;    along  the  crests    of   the  Asmai  and  Shere 

288 


PALACES    AND    COURT    LIFE 

Darwaza  it  is  still  standing  and  follows  those  heights 
to  the  Kabul  River,  which  separates  the  two.  If  the 
existing  landmarks  are  any  indication  of  its  origi- 
nal size,  it  is  improbable  that  old  Kabul  ever  can 
have  boasted  a  permanent  population  of  20,000  in- 
habitants. The  walls  of  the  old  city  were  pierced 
by  seven  gates,  the  Lahore  gate  being  now  the  only 
one  which  is  left.  These  earlier  gates  were  the 
Sirdar,  Pet,  Deh  Afghanan,  Deh  Mazang,  Guzar 
Gah,  Jabr,  and  the  Lahore,  the  existing  entrance. 
Of  these  the  Sirdar  was  the  last,  and  the  Jabr  gate 
the  first,  to  be  removed.  The  sites  of  the  others, 
although  no  longer  existing,  are  quite  well  known 
and  serve  as  custom  stations  to  the  revenue  officers. 
Many  of  the  names  by  which  these  seven  gates  were 
known  belonged  to  1504,  when  Baber  raised  the  for- 
tunes of  the  city  to  the  dignity  of  a  capital  —  a  period 
so  remote  from  to-day  that  it  is  only  by  the  recapit- 
ulation of  the  names  that  the  incidents  of  that 
epoch  are  recalled.  Nowadays  the  Lahore  gate  has 
fallen  into  decay  and  its  heavy  wooden  doors,  stud- 
ded with  iron,  appear  as  if  about  to  fall.  The  brick- 
work of  the  gateway  has  also  crumbled  and  the 
loopholes  in  the  arch  are  choked  with  rubbish.  In 
spite  of  its  dilapidated  condition  it  remains  an 
emphatic  link  between  the  present  time  and  those 
past  centuries. 

The  city  extends  a  mile  and  a  half  from  east  to 
west  and  a  mile  from  north  to  south.  Hemmed  in 
by  the  mountains,  there  is  little  room  for  a  capital 
of  any  size,  except  in  a  northerly  direction  towards 

289 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  Sliirpiir  cantonment.  It  is  the  intention  of  the 
present  ruler  of  Afghanistan  to  lay  down  the  lines  of 
a  new  city,  which,  in  size  and  in  the  importance  of 
its  defences,  shall  be  worthy  of  the  growing  dignity 
of  the  State.  The  late  Amir,  Abdur  Rahman,  had 
planned  the  site  of  another  capital  in  the  fertile 
Chahardeh  Valley  to  the  west  of  Shere  Darwaza  and 
Asmai,  and  between  them  and  the  Paghman  Hills, 
when  death  interrupted  his  labours.  Nevertheless  he 
bequeathed  his  policy  to  his  successor,  Habib  UUah, 
who  has  not  yet  moved  in  the  matter.  Shir  Ali, 
disgusted  with  the  unpleasant  condition  of  his  city, 
began  a  new  one  at  Shirpur  —  the  city  of  Shir  Ali  — 
but  circumstances  prevented  him  from  completing 
more  than  three  walls,  these  relics  of  a  self-imposed 
task  subsequently  affording  much  assistance  to  the 
British  when  the  Shirpur  cantonment  was  built.  In 
its  present  state  Kabul  affords  a  curious  and  inter- 
esting study  in  contrasts  between  the  old  and  the 
new  conditions.  It  is  still  a  dirty  city,  its  mean 
appearance  emphasised  by  the  neglected  condition  of 
its  rambling  lanes  and  the  ramshackle  character  of 
its  houses.  Yet  it  boasts  the  possession  of  several 
buildings  more  or  less  imposing,  their  existence  strik- 
ing a  very  w^elcome  note  of  relief  after  any  close 
acquaintance  with  the  narrow,  ill-paved  streets  and 
their  unusually  sordid  environment.  Still,  accumu- 
lations of  dirt  and  the  neglect  of  ages  cannot  con- 
ceal in  the  general  complexion  of  the  capital  a 
certain  tawdry  magnificence,  constantly  illustrated 
by  the  erection  of  elaborate  edifices  that  pass  into 

290 


PALACES    AND    COURT   LIFE 

neglect  within  a  short  space  of  their  construction. 
In  this  way  there  are  quite  a  number  of  so-called 
palaces  in  Kabul,  as  well  as  various  buildings  which, 
erected  under  the  spur  of  that  conspicuous  vanity 
that  distinguishes  the  Afghan  Court,  and  vaguely 
intended  for  industrial  enterprises,  have  been  aban- 
doned entirely  or  put  to  other  uses. 

In  spite  of  the  vagaries  of  design  that  distinguish 
the  architectural  arts  as  they  are  revealed  in  Kabul, 
interest  clings  to  the  old  Bala  Hissar  which,  lying  on 
a  spur  at  the  foot  of  the  Shere  Darwaza,  was  the 
abode  of  Shir  Ali,  similarly  serving  as  the  Residency 
for  Cavagnari  when  that  ill-fated  officer  lived  there. 
The  Bala  Hissar  is  now  in  ruins,  but  it  still  contains 
the  Black  Well,  a  hole  of  infamous  repute,  serving  as 
a  prison  for  political  offenders  and  other  malefactors. 
The  defences  of  the  Bala  Hissar  have  been  demol- 
ished, although  the  original  gateway  is  still  standing 
and  the  outer  wall  and  moat  exist.  The  fort  itself 
is  now  used  as  a  magazine  and  within  the  walls  rough 
barracks  have  been  provided  for  the  troops.  The 
recent  increase  in  the  garrison  of  the  city  is  expected 
to  occasion  its  total  demolition  and  the  re-erection  of 
more  convenient  quarters. 

The  modern  palaces  of  Kabul  are,  of  course, 
superior  in  size  and  in  their  schemes  of  adornment  to 
the  earlier  buildings;  on  this  account  it  is  impossible 
that  they  can  fail  to  arrest  attention.  The  residence 
which  will  become  eventually  the  principal  seat  of 
the  Amir  in  Kabul  is  the  Dil  Khusha  Palace.  This 
is  still  in  process  of  construction.     Much  time  has 

291 


AFGHANISTAN 

been  spent  over  the  work,  Mr.  Finlayson,  the  archi- 
tect retained  by  the  Amir,  being  delayed  with  his 
task  by  native  jealousies  and  Court  intrigues.  It 
w^ill  be  a  large,  semi-European  structure  with  two 
storeys,  the  upper  windows  permitting  pleasant  views 
of  the  palace  gardens.  Its  cost,  which  will  amount 
to  several  lakhs  of  rupees,  is  to  be  borne  by  the 
resources  of  the  State  which  are  already  quite  suffi- 
ciently straitened.  As  a  rule  the  Amir  selects  his 
abode  according  to  the  prevailing  season,  changing 
as  the  whim  seizes  him,  the  apparent  caprice  being 
more  generally  dictated  by  the  fear  of  assassination. 
The  favourite  palace,  the  Erg,  w^hich  was  appointed 
as  the  quarters  of  the  Dane  Mission,  lies  a  little 
beyond  the  town,  between  it  and  the  Shirpur  can- 
tonment where  Elphinstone  had  his  headquarters. 
Here  there  is  now  located  a  hospital  for  sick  and 
wounded  soldiers;  and,  provided  by  a  paternal  and 
God-granted  Government,  a  retreat  for  lunatics, 
maimed  prisoners,  and  the  blind  and  indigent,  where 
the  delights  of  a  lingering  death  may  be  indulged, 
since  the  authorities  thoughtfully  refuse  either  aid  or 
medicine.  The  palace  of  the  Erg  corresponds  more 
nearly  with  the  part  played  in  the  old  days  by  the 
Bala  Hissar.  It  is  at  once  the  central  domicile  of 
the  Court  and  a  strong  defensive  work,  although  it 
is  commanded  by  a  fort  situated  on  the  summit  of 
Asmai.  The  accommodation  is  divided  between  the 
palace  quarter,  occupying  the  inmost  station,  and 
an  inner  and  outer  fort.  A  high  wall,  pierced  on  its 
eastern  aspect  by  a  square  gateway  (in  which  there 

292 


PALACES    AND    COURT    LIFE 

are  no  gates),  encloses  the  entire  position.  Within 
the  gateway  and  extending  round  the  wall  of  the 
outer  fort  are  the  quarters  of  the  troops,  and  in  the 
centre  there  are  spacious  gardens.  One  regiment  is 
always  on  duty  in  the  outer  fort,  a  second  regiment 
being  detailed  to  safeguard  the  defences  of  the 
palace  proper  and  its  outer  precincts.  At  no  time 
during  the  day  or  night  is  the  Amir  without  a  strong 
guard.  Cossack  posts  are  established  about  the  en- 
trance, while  patrols  and  sentries  watch  the  grounds 
and  the  palace  itself.  The  inner  fort  is  separated 
from  the  outer  one  by  a  wide,  deep  ditch,  and  on 
the  remote  side  there  rise  high  battlements.  Access 
to  it  is  gained  by  a  drawbridge  which,  lowered  be- 
tween sunrise  and  sunset,  is  raised  at  night. 

In  appearance  this  work  is  decidedly  Oriental. 
The  much  decorated  gateway  is  set  in  a  semicircular 
recess,  flanked  by  imposing  bastions.  The  gates  are 
of  wood,  massive  and  studded  with  iron,  the  arches 
on  either  side  containing  quarters  for  the  guards.  To 
enter  it  is  necessary  to  cross  the  guard-room  and  to 
negotiate  beyond  it  the  various  sentries.  In  a  small 
tower  above  the  gateway  a  Maxim  is  stationed,  the 
tower  itself  being  used  at  sunrise  and  sunset  as  a 
place  of  ceremonial  salutation.  Morning  and  night 
throughout  the  year,  when  the  Amir  is  in  residence, 
the  changing  of  the  guards  is  accompanied  with  an 
outburst  of  native  music,  a  weird  discord  of  drum 
and  horn,  which  breaks  forth  in  greeting  to  his  High- 
ness. This  inner  work  is  itself  divided  })y  a  further 
wall,  which  is  pierced  with  loopholes  and  unceasingly 

293 


AFGHANISTAN 

patrolled.  To  a  certain  extent  it  acts  as  a  defensive 
curtain  to  the  heart  of  the  palace,  for,  in  the  space 
between,  there  are  a  series  of  small  gardens  and  the 
palace  premises.  The  garden  walks  are  fenced  with 
iron  railings;  abutting  from  them  at  their  eastern 
and  southern  extremities  are  rows  of  symmetrically 
arranged  buildings  of  single  and  double  storeys.  A 
postern  gate  affords  admission,  its  position  covered 
bj'  a  massive,  wooden  screen  of  considerable  height, 
length,  and  strength.  This  erection  protects  the 
palace  when  the  postern  gate  is  open.  The  several 
buildings  that  are  congregated  behind  the  curtain- 
wall  comprise  the  Amir's  pavilion,  the  official  quar- 
ters of  the  princes,  and  a  separate  enclosure  in  which 
stands  the  Harem  Serai.  In  addition  there  are  the 
Amir's  treasury  and  storehouses,  together  with  the 
quarters  of  certain  Court  officials  and  the  barracks  of 
the  body-guard  —  the  little  colony  being  set  within  a 
landscape  of  singular  beauty.  Numerous  varieties  of 
plants  grow  in  the  garden;  about  the  pavilion  there 
is  a  W'Calth  of  flowering  stocks,  sweet-smelling  peas 
and  gaily  coloured  roses,  the  air  being  heavy  with 
the  scent  of  many  perfumes.  Considering  the  mean 
and  uncomfortable  squalor  of  the  city,  the  presence 
of  this  oasis,  with  its  fresh  flow^ers,  green  grass,  shady 
trees,  and  neatly  tended  paths,  lends  to  the  position 
of  the  palace  an  attractive  brightness.  Away  from 
the  flow^ers  there  is  a  somewhat  garish  note:  the 
walks  between  the  beds  are  paved  w4th  marble,  and 
the  stone  figures  of  two  recumbent  lions  repose  upon 
either  side  of  steps  leading  to  the  pavilion.     This 

294 


PALACES    AND    COURT    LIFE 

building  was  constructed  by  Abdur  Rahman,  its  plan 
being  modelled  upon  a  church  which  he  had  seen 
in  Tashkent.  It  is  a  pretentious  two-storey  struc- 
ture, square  in  position,  dome-shaped  in  design,  with 
towers  and  cupolas  upon  each  corner,  the  lofty,  octag- 
onal hall  reaching  to  the  roof.  Upon  the  ground 
floor  four  alcoves  lead  off  from  the  main  space,  and 
above  them  there  are  four  other  rooms. 

The  corner  towers  possess  an  upper  and  a  lower 
chamber.  A  covered  walk  runs  round  three  sides, 
shading  the  windows  of  the  alcoves  from  the  glare  of 
the  sun  at  noon.  The  upper  rooms  are  lighted  by 
windows  overlooking  the  gardens;  the  alcoves  on  the 
ground  floor  by  windows  which  open  upon  the  veran- 
dah. The  outer  face  of  the  walk  is  pierced  by  nine 
arches,  and  the  roof  serves  as  a  promenade  for  any 
one  who  may  be  occupying  the  chambers  in  the 
towers.  Each  alcove  is  about  12  feet  square,  while 
the  breadth  of  the  hall  is  18  feet.  The  recesses  are 
retained  by  the  Amir  for  his  personal  use,  one  acting 
as  an  entrance  lobby,  another  as  the  receptacle  for 
his  couch,  a  third  as  a  writing-room  and  a  fourth  as 
a  waiting-place  for  his  pages.  There  are  no  doors 
to  these  recesses  on  the  main  floor,  and  between 
each,  lying  back  against  the  wall,  there  are  various 
articles  of  furniture,  a  black  wood  writing-desk,  a 
German  piano,  a  marble-topped  table,  and  a  carvcd- 
wood  cabinet.  Two  pictures  adorn  the  wall —  one 
representing  the  House  of  Commons  and  the  other 
the  House  of  Lords;  it  might  be  a  suitable  atten- 
tion upon  the  part  of  the  Government  of  India  to 

295 


AFGHANISTAN 

supplement  these  pictures  with  paintings  of  Queen 
Victoria,  Edward  \T!I,  and  Queen  Alexandra. 

For  audiences  of  a  semi-private  character,  as  well 
as  for  all  Durbar  matters  of  a  public  nature,  Abdur 
Rahman  frequented  the  Durbar  Hall,  situated  be- 
yond the  moat  in  the  gardens  of  the  Erg  Palace. 
It  is  a  long,  lofty  building  with  pillared  verandah, 
corrugated  iron  roof,  and  twelve  spacious  windows 
on  each  side,  curtained  after  the  European  fashion. 
Two  rows  of  white  columns,  placed  at  regular  stages 
down  the  floor  of  the  building,  support  an  elabo- 
rately carved  ceiling,  ornamented  with  stencilled 
plates  beaten  out  of  empty  kerosene  tins.  It  is  60 
yards  in  length  and  20  yards  in  breadth.  The  deco- 
ration is  Oriental,  but  in  the  upholstery  there  is  a 
mingling  of  the  influence  of  the  West  with  certain 
fashions  of  the  East.  The  eastern  entrance  admits 
through  a  big  double  doorway  and  portico  to  the 
Durbar  chamber,  which  is  usually  the  scene  of  any 
festivities  that  the  Amir  may  provide  for  the  delecta- 
tion of  his  Court  or  the  entertainment  of  his  guests. 
At  such  a  moment  the  floor  is  carpeted  with  English 
carpets  and  the  aisles  of  the  hall  are  occupied  by  long 
tables,  each  place  being  set  with  a  cane-bottomed 
wooden  arm-chair,  European  cutlery,  and  Indian 
napery.  The  illumination  proceeds  from  two  elec- 
tric arc  lamps,  their  dynamo  worked  by  a  portable 
engine  which  is  brought  from  the  workshops  for 
the  occasion.  The  building  lies  east  and  west  across 
the  garden  and,  at  its  western  extremity,  there  Is  the 
Amir's  Guest  House.     This  comprises,  on  the  ground 

296 


PALACES    AND    COURT   LIFE 

floor,  a  large  hall,  which  opens  into  the  palace  gar- 
dens, and  three  smaller  rooms.  A  stone  staircase, 
with  wooden  balustrade,  leads  where  there  is  a  second 
apartment,  on  an  upper  floor,  lighted  by  many  double 
windows  and  giving  upon  a  terrace. 

In  addition  to  a  summer  palace  at  Indikki,  re- 
garded by  the  late  Amir  as  a  convenient  place  of 
banishment  for  his  sons  when  occasion  for  their 
punishment  occurred,  there  is  the  Shah  Ara  Palace. 
This  was  used  for  the  reception  of  the  Dane  Mis- 
sion, and  is  generally  employed  in  all  state  cere- 
monies. It  is  situated  in  a  spacious  garden,  where 
stands  during  Ramazan  a  Durbar  tent,  in  which  the 
Amir  fulfils  his  religious  duties.  For  audiences  with 
the  Amir  at  this  palace  the  invited  guests  assemble 
in  a  similar  tent,  whence  they  are  conducted  to  the 
throne  room.  The  floor  of  this  apartment  is  deco- 
rated with  Persian  carpets;  and  a  row  of  chairs, 
arranged  along  one  wall,  is  confronted  by  two  carved 
cupboards.  In  the  centre  of  the  room  is  a  polished 
table  and  near  the  entrance  there  is  a  smaller  one, 
circular  and  marble-topped.  The  Durbars  held  in 
this  palace  are  of  interest  because  they  constitute 
one  of  the  few  occasions  upon  which  the  Amir  of 
Afghanistan  receives  and  speaks  with  Europeans. 

The  Amir  is  smaller  in  stature  than  his  father,  to 
whom  he  bears  a  marked  facial  resemblance;  his 
attitude  is  no  less  dignified,  although  his  manner  is 
much  milder  than  that  which  distinguished  the  late 
Abdur  Rahman.  In  speaking,  Habib  Ullah  suffers 
from  a  slight  impediment  of  speech,  the  result  of  an 

297 


AFGHANISTAN 

attempt  against  his  life  when,  as  a  child,  some  one 
endeavoured  to  poison  him.  In  appearance  he  is  of 
a  light  complexion,  with  heavy  features  which  are 
adorned  with  a  slight  beard  and  moustache.  He  is 
broad,  rather  clumsily  built,  with  a  marked  tendency 
to  stoutness.  Neither  in  his  face,  nor  in  such  evi- 
dences of  capacity  as  he  has  shown,  does  he  reveal 
the  truculent  ability  of  his  immediate  predecessor 
upon  the  throne. 

Frankness  and  self-reliance  were,  perhaps,  the 
most  prominent  characteristics  of  Abdur  Rahman's 
nature.  At  the  same  time  he  was  a  genial,  strong, 
clever  man  of  the  world,  well-informed  upon  all  sub- 
jects of  general  interest,  eloquent,  resolute,  logical, 
and  possessed  of  much  innate  humour  and  facility 
in  repartee.  Always  alive  to  his  own  interests,  he 
possessed  no  small  capacity  for  intrigue;  and  his  first 
bid  for  position  in  x\fghanistan  was  as  the  nominee  of 
the  Russians,  General  Kauffman,  the  Russian  Gov- 
ernor-General of  Turkestan,  having  arranged  that 
he  should  be  supplied  with  200  breech-loading  rifles, 
20,000  rounds  of  ammunition,  accoutrements  for  100 
horses  and  100  footmen,  and  5000  Bokhara  tillas 
(35,000  rupees).  Yet  when  he  appeared  across  the 
border  and  arrived  at  a  secret  understanding  with 
the  Government  of  India  about  his  nomination  as 
Amir,  he  posed  as  the  champion  of  his  faith  and 
the  liberator  of  the  land  from  foreign  domination, 
suppressing,  in  order  to  do  this,  all  mention  of 
his  agreement  with  England  and  of  his  relations 
with  Russia.    Nevertheless,  as  soon  as  his  own  posi- 

298 


PALACES    AND    COURT    LIFE 

tion  was  secure,  he  curtailed  the  influence  of  the 
mullahs. 

In  spite  of  his  amiability  Habib  Ullah  does  not 
possess  a  very  secure  seat  upon  his  throne,  the  in- 
trigues of  the  queen-mother  and  the  jealousy  of 
his  brothers  disturbing  his  position.  Nor  does  he 
receive  the  confidence  of  his  people  or  reveal  suffi- 
cient strength  of  character  to  dominate  the  situation. 
Afghanistan  needs  the  firm  hand  of  a  man,  who  is  as 
much  a  maker  as  a  ruler  of  men.  Habib  Ullah  is 
weak-willed;  and,  in  a  country  where  the  authority 
of  the  priest  is  a  law  in  the  land,  his  subserviency  to 
priestly  control  and  his  subjection  to  the  influence  of 
his  brother,  Nasr  Ullah  Khan,  have  attracted  univer- 
sal attention.  Nasr  Ullah  and  the  Queen  Dowager, 
Bibi  Halima,  wife  of  the  late  Amir  and  the  mother  of 
Sirdar  Mohammed  Omar  Jar  Khan,  are  the  stormy 
petrels  in  the  Afghan  sea  of  domestic  politics.  Habib 
Ullah  in  some  measure  understands  the  situation; 
and,  doubtless,  it  is  out  of  respect  for  their  dignity 
that  Bibi  Halmi  and  Omar  Khan  are  closely  pro- 
tected by  a  strong  detachment  of  the  Imperial  Body- 
guard —  so  closely,  indeed,  that  they  are  practically 
state  prisoners. 

It  is  more  difficult  for  the  Amir  to  assail  the  posi- 
tion occupied  by  Nasr  Ullah,  who  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Afghan  army  in  the  early 
days  of  Habib  Ullah's  accession.  Little  attempt 
therefore  is  made  by  the  Amir  to  curb  the  master- 
ful will  of  his  brother.  Nasr  Ullah  Khan,  who  has 
become  a  Hafis  or  repeater  of  the  Koran,  also  held  the 

299 


AFGHANISTAN 

office  of  Shahgassi,  or  Gentleman  Usher  to  the  King. 
Just  before  the  advent  of  the  Dane  Mission  at  Kabul 
he  was  created  an  Itwad-ul-Dowlah  or  Pillar  of  the 
State.  In  his  dual  capacity  he  threw  into  the  scales 
already  settling  against  the  Mission  the  whole  weight 
of  his  influence,  ultimately  securing  its  complete  dis- 
comjBture.  He  is  not,  perhaps,  the  most  reliable 
prop  to  the  policy  and  rule  of  his  brother,  since  he 
aspires  to  the  throne  for  himself;  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that  when  opportunity  offers  he  will  make  a 
bid  for  it.  At  the  moment  neither  his  plans  nor  his 
partisans  are  prepared,  but  events  move  with  such 
swiftness  in  Afghanistan  that  no  one  can  gauge 
more  than  approximately  the  varying  fortunes  of  the 
situation.  Serious  family  quarrels  have  compelled 
the  Amir  to  exercise  his  authority  in  the  arbitrary 
way  common  in  Afghanistan.  The  first  step  taken 
was  in  1904,  when  the  Omar  Jar  was  deprived  of 
his  body-guard,  the  men  being  sent  back  to  their 
regiments.  The  next  step  was  to  remove  him  from 
his  office  as  head  of  all  Government  officials,  an 
appointment  in  which  he  had  succeeded  Nasr  Ullah 
Khan  in  1902.  These  proceedings  caused  much 
excitement  in  the  capital,  and  public  feeling  increased 
when  it  became  known  the  Bibi  Halima  had  refused 
to  accept  the  allowance  assigned  to  her  for  the  upkeep 
of  her  household.  Matters  became  further  compli- 
cated by  an  incident  which  roused  the  Amir's  anger 
against  the  "Queen's"  faction.  Omar  Jar  ordered 
the  Master  of  the  Horse  to  send  him  the  favourite 
charger  of  the  late  Amir.     This  request  was  disre- 

300 


PALACES    AND    COURT   LIFE 

garded,  and  the  unfortunate  officer,  on  being  sum- 
moned to  give  an  explanation,  was  so  maltreated  by 
the  Sirdar's  retainers  that  he  died  from  his  injuries. 
When  news  of  these  proceedings  reached  the  ears  of 
the  Amir,  the  Bibi  Halima  and  her  son  were  directed 
to  leave  the  palace  where  they  had  resided  since 
the  demise  of  Abdur  Rahman,  Habib  Ullah  finally 
decreeing  that  they  should  be  confined  to  another 
residence  where  they  are  practically  state  prisoners. 
His  Highness  is  said  to  have  asked  two  of  the  prin- 
cipal mullahs  in  Kabul  to  adjudicate  upon  the  causes 
of  the  strained  relations  existing  in  his  family;  but, 
although  a  temporary  compromise  was  established, 
no  permanent  reconciliation  was  obtained.  It  is 
necessary  to  study  carefully  the  table  of  the  Amir's 
descent  to  understand  the  precise  position  of  affairs 
existing  to-day  in  Afghanistan. 

Even  in  Afghanistan  women  wield  an  influence 
over  the  affairs  of  the  State,  and  its  domestic  policy 
is  never  without  the  disturbing  effect  of  a  jealous 
woman's  interference.  Indeed,  the  sway  of  the  harem 
in  Court  circles  at  Kabul  is  as  pronounced  as  the 
power  of  the  priests  —  a  condition  of  affairs  that  is 
no  small  departure  from  the  old  order,  when  women 
and  priests  were  relegated  to  the  background.  Since 
the  ascent  of  the  present  Amir  to  the  throne  there 
have  been  changes  in  the  army,  in  the  State,  and 
in  the  harem.  Three  wives  have  been  divorced  — 
a  woman  of  the  Mohmund  tribe;  a  woman  from 
the  Helmund  country  who  had  only  been  a  few  days 
in  Kabul,  and  the  daughter  of  Saad-ud-Din  Khan, 

301 


AFGHANISTAN 

Ilakim  of  Herat,  the  will  of  the  Kabul  priests  pre- 
vailing upon  Habib  Ullah  to  enforce  the  spirit  of  the 
Koran,  which  forbids  the  maintenance  of  more  than 
four  wives.  The  number  of  concubines  is  unre- 
stricted and  the  strength  of  the  royal  harem  in  this 
respect  increases  constantly,  slaves  of  prepossessing 
appearance  —  in  the  service  of  the  queens  —  being 
chosen.  Their  end  is  usually  disastrous,  and  the 
hapless  woman  who,  as  a  slave,  excites  the  admira- 
tion of  the  Amir  is  generally  —  "removed."  The 
four  wives  who  have  survived  this  example  of  priestly 
authority  are:  (1)  the  mother  of  Aman  Ullah;  (2) 
Ulia  Jancah  (the  daughter  of  Yusef  Khan  Barakzai, 
the  favourite  wife  until  recently  —  she  is  the  mother 
of  a  daughter);  (3)  the  daughter  of  Ibrahim  Khan; 
and  (4)  the  mother  of  Inayat  Ullah.  The  child  of 
Yusef  Khan,  Ulia  Jancah,  is  known  in  the  intimate 
circle  of  the  harem  as  the  Hindustani  queen.  She 
is  a  woman  of  education,  charm,  and  accomplish- 
ment. She  reads  and  writes ;  as  a  former  pupil  of  an 
Indian  seminary  she  also  sings  and  plays  the  piano. 
She  is  no  admirer  of  the  Afghan  ruler,  his  people, 
or  the  State;  and  it  was  the  chance  expression  of 
this  aversion  which  brought  about  her  displace- 
ment. 

The  woman  now  filling  the  position  of  chief  queen 
is  the  mother  of  Aman  Ullah.  She  has  recently  given 
birth  to  a  daughter.  At  a  more  normal  season  she 
strikes  an  interesting  contrast  with  the  daughter  of 
Yusef  Khan.  She  is  a  woman  of  ungovernable  pas- 
sions, wilful,  domineering,  and  capricious  —  an  odd 

302 


PALACES    AND    COURT    LIFE 

mixture  of  the  termagant  and  the  shrew.  She  has 
killed  with  her  own  hands  three  of  her  slaves  who 
had  become  enceinte  through  their  intercourse  with 
the  Amir,  and  she  chastises  personally  her  erring 
handmaidens,  purposely  disfiguring  any  whose  physi- 
cal attractiveness  may  appeal  to  their  master.  Her 
influence  over  the  Amir,  however,  is  limited.  She 
sings  and  dances,  but  she  lacks  the  subtle  craft  of 
the  Bibi  Halima  and  the  gentle  dignity  of  the  Hindu- 
stani queen.  The  four  wives  of  the  Amir  occupy 
positions  which  are  graduated  to  a  recognised  scale. 
The  first  wife,  the  mother  of  Aman  Ullah,  draws  an 
allowance  of  one  lakh  of  rupees  annually :  the  second 
wife,  Ulia  Jancah,  the  Hindustani  queen,  80,000 
rupees;  the  third  wife,  the  daughter  of  Ibrahim,  20,- 
000  rupees;  and  the  fourth  wife,  mother  of  Inayat 
Ullah,  14,000  rupees  a  year.  The  first  queen  resides 
in  the  harem  serai  of  the  Shah  Ara  palace  where  the 
two  principal  concubines,  the  mothers  of  Ilayat- 
Ullah  IChan^  and  Kabir  Jan^  and  respectively  former 
Badakshi  and  Tokhi  slave-girls,  are  housed.  The 
inmates  of  the  harem  are  busy  people,  occupying 
themselves  in  knitting,  embroidery,  and  other  femi- 
nine pursuits.  The  chief  wife  has  a  sewing-machine 
and  with  it  makes  clothes  for  her  children.  The 
Hindustani  queen,  who  is  of  royal  birlh,  lives  in 
great  style.  She  is  an  ambitious  woman  and  wears 
English  dresses,  although  it  should  be  said  that  they 
are  costumes  in  the  fashion  of  thirty  years  ago. 
Each  of  the  Amir's  married  wives,  as  distinct  from 

1  Born  1890.  «  Born  1893. 

303 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  concubines,  has  a  separate  house,  where  she  Hves 
^^•ilh  her  children. 

The  Queen  Dowager,  Bibi  Hahma,  the  mother  of 
Sirdar  Mohammed  Omar  Khan,  a  woman  of  engag- 
ing personaHty,  at  one  time  held  a  position  not  with- 
out close  resemblance  to  those  filled  by  the  Empress 
Dowager  of  China  and  the  Lady  Om,  queen  to  the 
Emperor  of  Korea.  Her  intrigues  on  behalf  of  her 
son  were  over-bold  and  she  is  now  confined  —  her 
son,  contrary  to  the  energetic  character  of  his  mother, 
taking  little  interest  in  his  situation.  The  Bibi 
Halima  is  a  woman  of  considerable  beauty,  particu- 
larly intelligent,  and  well  informed.  She  is  nearly 
forty -three  years  of  age,  and  her  sympathies  are  so 
distinctly  British  that  her  palace  is  regarded  with  as 
much  suspicion  as  the  British  agency.  The  law  of 
succession  to  the  thrones  in  Mohammedan  countries, 
apart  from  the  exercise  of  opportunity  which  secures 
recognition  upon  the  basis  that  might  is  right,  entails 
the  throne  upon  the  son  of  the  first  woman  whom  the 
ruler  may  have  married.  The  heir  may  be  younger 
than  sons  born  to  other  women,  but,  if  such  a  mar- 
riage were  the  first  alliance  contracted  by  his  father, 
the  succession  is  seldom  set  aside.  Abdur  Rahman, 
however,  departed  from  this  custom  as  the  Amirs  of 
Afghanistan  have  power  to  appoint  their  successors. 

Habib  Ullah  is  the  offspring  of  a  Wakhan  concu- 
bine named  Gulriz  with  whom  the  Amir  Abdur  Rah- 
man consorted.  Bibi  Halima,  also  the  wife  of  Abdur 
Rahman,  lays  claim  to  it  through  her  direct  descent 
from  the  Amir  Dost  Mohammed  Khan.     She  is  of 

304 


PALACES    AND    COURT    LIFE 

the  Blood  Royal  indubitably;  and,  if  she  were  in 
possession  of  her  liberty,  she  would  soon  compel  her 
son,  Sirdar  Mohammed  Omar  Khan,  to  take  the 
field.  His  chances  of  success  in  any  rebellion  would 
be  as  great  as  those  enjoyed  by  his  half-brother, 
Nasr  Ullah  Khan,  similarly  a  son  of  Gulriz  and  full 
brother  to  Habib  Ullah.  The  disparity  in  the  ages 
of  these  three  sons  of  Abdur  Rahman  bears  upon 
the  present  situation  —  Habib  Ullah,  born  1872,  and 
Nasr  Ullah,  born  1874,  being  many  years  the  senior 
of  Mohammed  Omar,  who  was  born  at  Mazar-i- 
Sharif  on  September  15,  1889.  By  a  strange  irony, 
which  may  yet  be  not  without  its  effect  upon  the 
succession  to  the  throne,  Inayat  Ullah,  the  son  of 
Habib  Ullah  and  the  lawful  heir  to  the  throne,  was 
born  in  1888,  his  uncle,  the  son  of  Bibi  Halima  and 
Abdur  Rahman,  being  only  six  months  younger. 

Ultimately  there  is  some  prospect  of  a  struggle  for 
the  throne  taking  place  between  the  uncle  and  his 
nephew.  Each  is  a  young  man;  but,  although  time 
may  not  temper  their  discretion,  it  does  lie  within  the 
power  of  Habib  Ullah  to  place  the  rights  of  his  son 
beyond  the  reach  of  this  particular  rival  candidate. 
In  any  case,  and  it  is  of  interest  to  note  it,  Habib 
Ullah  has  gone  out  of  his  way  to  consolidate  the 
position  of  his  eldest  son,  Inayat  Ullah.  This  he  did 
by  despatching  him  on  the  recent  mission  to  India 
and  appointing  him  Governor  of  Kabul,  while  Mo- 
hammed Omar  shares  the  restricted  liberty  of  his 
mother,  and  Hayat  Ullah,  born  in  1890,  the  son  of  a 
Badakshi  slave-girl  and  half-brother  to  Inayat  Ullah, 

305 


AFGHANISTAN 

the  heir-apparent,  has  been  appointed  to  Badakshan 
as  Governor  of  the  province.  These  facts  are  in 
reality  only  eddies  showing  the  way  that  the  current 
runs  in  Kabul,  where  from  its  complex  nature  the 
position  may  be  described  as  shifting,  delicate,  and 
treacherous  as  any  quicksand.  Nonetheless  the  pol- 
icy of  the  new  Amir  has  been  markedly  benevolent; 
and  his  remission  of  certain  taxes,  his  many  acts  of 
clemency  to  Afridi  fugitives,  and  his  invitations  to 
Afghan  refugees  of  noble  or  tribal  families  to  return, 
reveal  a  great  change  in  the  controlling  forces  in 
Afghanistan.  It  is  to  us  not  a  matter  of  gratification 
altogether,  for  it  merely  shows  that  the  tribal  leaders 
of  noble  families  have  lost  their  influence,  that  they 
can  no  more  sway  factions  or  parties  in  the  popula- 
tion, and  that  power  in  Afghanistan  is  being  gradually 
centralised  around  the  Amir  in  a  circle  of  officials 
which  is  controlled  by  the  mullahs.  The  invitation 
to  the  refugees  to  come  back  is  not  out  of  any  gener- 
osity of  feeling;  it  arises  from  pride  —  and  a  desire  to 
appear  to  be  indulgent  to  those  w  ho  are  helpless  and 
who  are  now  impotent.  In  fact  it  is  political  charity, 
intended  to  spread  the  good  name  of  the  new  ruler 
of  Afghanistan  in  India,  and  to  impress  the  British 
Government.  It  is  a  certain  indication  too,  that, 
in  the  event  of  complications  in  the  future  with 
Afghanistan,  the  assistance  of  dissatisfied  Sirdars 
will  be  of  little  value,  for,  in  a  few  years  if  not  very 
soon,  the  only  elements  will  be  the  oflBcials,  the 
bureaucracy,  and  the  mullahs.  At  the  same  time 
the  power  of  the  Amir  himself  has  been  reduced  and 

306 


PALACES    AND    COURT    LIFE 

transferred  to  the  officials.  The  measures  of  Abdur 
Rahman  prepared  the  way  for  this  change.  He 
either  killed  or  frightened  out  of  Afghanistan  every 
rival  or  everj'-  individual  likely  to  acquire  influence. 
His  declaration  and  boast  was  that  his  God-granted 
Government  ruled  for  the  benefit  of  the  people  and 
the  glory  of  religion,  that  he  had  no  object  but  the 
good  of  the  country  and  no  secrets  from  the  people 
as  he  had  no  interests  but  theirs  to  serve.  There  is 
not  amongst  any  class  of  Afghans  the  feeling  of  rev- 
erence for  the  throne  which  exists  in  Turkey  or 
Persia.  The  Amir  is  the  highest  official  of  a  tribe 
that  has  seized  power;  and  Afghanistan  is  gradu- 
ally evolving  a  bureaucratic  Government  controlled 
by  priestly  influence,  whose  policy  will  not  always 
be  measured  by  the  interests  of  the  country,  but 
by  whatever  interpretations  of  the  "Sheriat"  some 
powerful  mullah  may  conjure  up. 

Meanwhile  Afghanistan  is  acknowledged  to  be  an 
independent  Government  within  certain  limitations. 
No  Power  has  any  right  to  interfere  in  its  adminis- 
tration, although  it  is  obvious  that  certain  contin- 
gencies might  alter  its  position  in  this  respect.  In 
the  meantime  the  Government  of  Afghanistan  owes 
no  national  debt  nor  any  war  indemnity.  The  Amir 
is  not  hampered  by  any  capitulations  with  foreign 
Governments;  he  has  no  foreign  ambassadors  in  his 
capital  —  although  this  is  more  a  grievance  than  a 
pleasure  to  him,  since  he  is  anxious  to  vaunt  his 
independence  before  the  Courts  of  Europe. 

The  relations  between  Great  Britain  and  Afghani- 

307 


AFGHANISTAN 

stall  as  they  stand  to-day  are  fixed  by  treaties.  The 
British  Government  acknowledges  the  independence 
of  Afghanistan ;  it  accepts  responsibihty  for  its  safety 
and  integrity  against  unprovoked  aggressions,  so  long 
as  the  Amir  does  not  act  against  the  advice  of  the 
British  Government  in  matters  affecting  his  rela- 
tions with  other  countries.  Great  Britain  pays  the 
Amir  eighteen  lakhs  of  rupees  as  an  annual  subsidy 
by  virtue  of  Sir  Mortimer  Durand's  treaty  with  the 
Amir  Abdur  Rahman,  dated  1893,  and  confirmed  by 
Sir  Louis  Dane  with  the  Amir  Habib  Ullah,  1904- 
1905;  in  addition  to  which  she  permits  Afghanistan 
to  import  without  restriction  supplies  of  war  mate- 
rials and  to  maintain  a  political  agent  at  the  Court 
of  the  Viceroy  of  India. 

In  return  for  this  understanding  with  the  Imperial 
Government,  the  Amir  is  bound  by  his  word  and 
treaties  to  be  the  friend  and  ally  of  Great  Britain; 
he  pledges  himself  not  to  communicate  with  any  for- 
eign Power  without  consulting  with  the  Indian  Gov- 
ernment, and  to  accept  at  Kabul  a  British  agent, 
who  must  always  be  a  Mohammedan  subject  and 
provided  solely  with  a  native  staff. 

The  British  agent  at  Kabul  holds  an  absolutely 
thankless  position.  He  is  shunned  of  necessity  by 
Europeans  in  order  to  avoid  giving  rise  to  political 
suspicions,  and  he  may  see  the  Amir  only  in  the 
public  Durbars  or  by  special  appointment.  To  all 
intents  and  purposes  he  is  a  prisoner;  since,  although 
received  in  Durbar,  he  does  not  visit  any  one  and 
seldom  ventures  into  the  street.    If  a  European  were 

308 


PALACES    AND    COURT    LIFE 

seen  speaking  to  the  British  agent,  or  to  any  one 
attached  to  his  staff,  he  would  certainly  be  packed 
off  at  once  to  the  frontier.  No  Afghan  is  allowed  to 
enter  the  British  agency  and  no  Englishman  has 
visited  the  British  agent,  since  Sir  Salter  Pyne  left 
Kabul.  Even  to  be  found  near  the  building  causes 
suspicion,  as  several  Afghans  have  discovered.  More- 
over, since  in  many  cases  punishment  has  not  ended 
merely  with  imprisonment,  it  has  become  an  unwrit- 
ten law  to  avoid  the  British  agent  and  his  entourage 
at  any  cost. 

The  British  political  agents  at  Kabul  are  appointed 
by  the  Indian  Foreign  Oflfice,  who  forward  to  the 
Amir  for  his  approval  the  names  of  a  few  Moham- 
medan oJBBcials.  One  of  these  candidates  is  selected, 
the  term  of  office  being  from  three  to  five  years. 
Upon  returning  to  India  he  is  usually  rewarded 
with  the  title  of  Nawab.  The  agency  staff  consists 
of  two  secretaries,  one  hospital  assistant,  and  about 
two  or  three  dozen  private  servants  and  body-guard, 
all  of  which  must  be  natives  of  India.  The  British 
agent  attends  the  public  audiences  of  the  Amir; 
but,  if  he  has  any  letters  or  communications  from 
the  British  Government  to  convey  to  the  Amir,  he 
must  ask  for  an  appointment  to  deliver  them. 

If  there  are  any  legal  disputes  or  claims  between 
members  of  the  staff  of  the  British  agent,  both  plain- 
tiff and  defendant  are  referred  by  him  to  the  Courts 
of  Justice  in  India.  If  the  British  agent  or  any 
member  of  his  staff  has  a  dispute  with  the  Afglian 
subjects  of  the  Amir,  such  cases  are  usually  decided 

309 


AFGHANISTAN 

in  the  Courts  of  Kabul,  under  the  law  of  that  coun- 
try. Complications  of  a  very  serious  political  char- 
acter are  invariably  referred  to  the  Governments  of 
India  and  Afghanistan  for  arrangement  between 
themselves. 

The  British  agent  puts  his  diary  and  also  the  pri- 
vate letters  of  the  whole  of  his  staff  into  one  package, 
which  he  hands  to  the  Amir's  Postmaster-General 
at  Kabul,  taking  a  receipt  for  their  delivery  under 
seal;  from  the  Amir's  post-office  they  are  sent  down 
to  Peshwar,  where  the  Amir's  postmaster  is  given  a 
discharge  for  their  surrender  to  the  political  agent  at 
Peshawar.  In  the  same  manner  the  packages  of 
letters,  which  are  delivered  by  the  British  political 
agent  at  Peshawar  to  the  Amir's  postmaster  at  that 
place,  are  forwarded  to  the  British  agent  at  Kabul 
by  the  Amir's  Postmaster-General,  who  also  takes  a 
voucher  for  their  safe  and  proper  condition.  The 
services  and  duties  of  the  Amir's  political  agent  with 
the  Viceroy  of  India,  who,  together  with  his  staff,  is 
a  Mohammedan  subject  of  the  Amir,  are  nearly  the 
same  as  those  of  the  British  agent  at  Kabul,  except 
that  the  term  and  time  of  his  office  is  not  limited 
and  depends  entirely  on  the  pleasure  of  the  Amir. 
Besides  the  political  agent  the  Amir  has  various 
commercial  agents  in  India  as  well  as  in  England, 
the  most  important  of  these  having  been  Sir  Acquin 
Martin,  Mr.  T.  B.  Guthrie,  and  Mr.  E.  T.  Pack. 
Each  of  these  industrious  and  excellent  servants  of 
the  Amir  has  suffered  the  loss  of  large  sums  of 
money   through   a  very  pronounced   defect  in   the 

310 


PALACES    AND    COURT    LIFE 

Amirs  of  Afghanistan,  which  causes  them  to  forget 
their  obHgations  so  long  as  there  is  a  frontier  lying 
between  the  Government  of  Kabul  and  those  with 
whom  its  debts  have  been  contracted.  Represen- 
tations remain  unanswered  and,  apparently,  no 
authority  exists  which  can  make  the  Amir  of  Af- 
ghanistan redeem  his  liabilities,  although  an  obvious 
course  awaits  if  the  Government  of  India  would 
assent  to  the  attachment  of  the  subsidy. 


311 


CHAPTER   X\^II 

KABUL   AND    ITS    BAZAARS 

THE  bazaars  of  Kabul  are  quite  unworthy  of  the 
capital,  but  radical  improvement  in  their 
character  could  only  be  made  by  a  complete 
reconstruction  of  the  city.  Here  and  there  new  ones 
have  been  built,  Habib  UUah  himself  having  erected 
several  at  his  own  expense,  but  the  principle  of  con- 
struction, adopted  at  the  time  of  the  building  of  the 
city,  is  the  great  stumbling-block  to  any  extensive 
alterations.  The  narrowness  of  the  streets,  many  of 
which  are  mere  alleys,  gives  rise  to  perpetual  conges- 
tion; while,  in  consequence  of  their  contracted  char- 
acter, they  pre  always  dirty  and  overloaded  with  the 
refuse  of  the  houses,  more  particularly  in  winter 
when  they  are  blocked  with  the  snow,  which  is  swept 
from  the  roofs.  Of  the  several  bazaars  of  the  city, 
the  three  principal,  running  irregularly  parallel  to 
each  other,  are  the  Shor  Bazaar,  the  Erg  Bazaar,  and 
the  Darwaza  Lahori  Bazaar.  The  former  extends 
east  and  w^est  from  the  Bala  Hissar  to  the  Ziarat 
Baba  Khudi,  a  distance  of  little  more  than  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile.  The  latter,  stretching  from  the 
Darwaza  Lahori,  passes  through  the  centre  of  the 
wood  market  and  terminates  at  the  New  Bridge. 

312 


KABUL   AND    ITS    BAZAARS 

The  Erg  Bazaar  crosses  the  town  and  communicates 
with  the  workshops.  The  western  portion  of  the 
Darwaza  Lahori  Bazaar  was  the  site  of  the  Char 
Chata,  at  one  time  undoubtedly  the  most  magnifi- 
cent bazaar  in  Afghanistan.  The  structure,  ascribed 
to  AH  Mardan  Khan,  whose  name  is  immortal  in 
these  countries,  was  handsomely  laid  out  and  highly 
embellished  with  paintings.  Four  covered  arcades, 
of  equal  length  and  dimensions,  were  separated  from 
each  other  by  open  squares,  originally  provided  with 
wells  and  fountains.  The  entire  fabric  was  destroyed 
in  October,  1842,  by  General  Pollock,  as  retribution 
for  the  murder  of  Sir  William  ^Nlacnaghten  and  the 
indignities  offered  to  his  remains. 

The  Nakush  Bazaar,  or  cattle  market,  is  situated 
north  of  the  Kabul  River  and  west  of  the  Pul-i- 
Kishti  in  the  Indarabi  quarter.  The  Mandi  Kalan 
and  the  Mandi  Shahzada,  the  chief  grain  bazaars,  lie 
in  the  Tandur  Sazi  quarter,  between  the  Shor  Bazaar 
and  the  Darwaza  Lahori.  The  Shikarpuri  quarter, 
adjoining  the  Pul-i-Kishti  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river,  is  the  fruit  market.  Here  are  collected  the 
various  fruits  for  which  the  capital  of  Afghanistan 
is  so  famous,  the  exhibition  of  grapes,  apples,  apri- 
cots, and  pears  becoming  at  once  the  glory  of  the 
bazaars.  Melons  are  missing  from  this  bazaar,  as 
this  important  branch  of  the  fruit  trade  of  Afghani- 
stan is  conducted  in  the  Mandi  Kalan.  Near  to  the 
fruit  bazaar  are  the  wood  and  charcoal  markets,  each 
section  of  trade  possessing  its  particular  locality  and 
its  special  market-place. 

313 


AFGHANISTAN 

In  this  way  there  is  a  shoe  bazaar,  a  meat  mar- 
ket, a  vegetable  market,  a  copper  bazaar,  silk  bazaar, 
and  certain  central  marts  where  arms,  tobacco,  furs, 
medicines,  and  cloth  are  sold.  In  the  boot  bazaar 
there  are  a  number  of  Anglo-Indian  importations 
and  no  less  a  quantity  from  Russia.  The  native 
shoes  are  made  from  leather  which  is  manufactured 
in  Kabul  at  the  Amir's  factory  —  articles  of  local 
manufacture  being  put  up  as  a  rule  upon  the  premises 
where  they  are  sold.  The  more  important  merchants 
possess  accommodation  beneath  their  shops,  where 
craftsmen,  whose  special  industry''  is  allied  with  the 
business  in  the  premises  above  them,  are  employed. 
These  underground  rooms  are  so  small  that  the  men 
at  work  are  compelled  to  crouch  over  their  knees, 
while  customers,  who  bring  articles  for  repair,  sit  in 
the  street.  In  the  copper  bazaar,  where  domestic 
utensils  are  to  be  found,  there  is  the  ceaseless  tapping 
of  countless  hammers,  as  the  men,  assisted  by  boys 
who  ply  the  bellows  or  feed  the  furnace  with  char- 
coal, wield  their  tools  upon  long-necked  vases,  hub- 
ble-bubbles, kettles,  cooking  pots,  water-bottles  with 
delicate  handles  and  graceful  spouts,  stoves,  plates, 
and  copper  boxes  of  all  shapes  and  sizes.  These 
w^orkers  in  metals,  whether  they  are  the  ironmongers 
or  silversmiths,  smelters  of  copper,  or  the  moulders 
of  brass,  are  worthy  of  their  hire,  and  bring  to  their 
labours  an  extraordinary  patience  and  exactitude. 
The  silversmiths  are,  perhaps,  the  most  wonderful 
craftsmen,  although  the  men  who  trace  fantastic 
designs  upon  metal  vessels  with  blunt  instruments 

314 


KABUL    AND    ITS    BAZAARS 

are  not  to  be  despised.  From  early  morning,  with- 
out cessation  until  the  heat  of  the  mid-day  hours 
makes  work  impossible,  they  bend  over  their  tasks, 
actively  working  their  pliers,  tweezers,  and  hammers 
as  they  fashion  ear-rings,  bracelets,  or  graven  ewers. 
The  business,  transacted  at  these  stalls,  seems  out 
of  proportion  with  the  labour  involved,  as  sales  are 
arranged  between  the  merchant  and  his  customers 
only  after  many  days  of  protracted  dealing. 

The  method  of  barter  is  alwaj^s  the  same  in  the 
East.  Customers  sit  down  by  the  side  of  the  mer- 
chant, examining  and  asking  the  value  of  his  goods, 
praising  certain  pieces,  and  decrjang  others,  until  con- 
versation has  worked  round  to  the  article  which  it  is 
desired  to  buy.  Ten  times  the  price  will  be  asked  at 
first,  perhaps  haggled  over  with  all  sincerity,  until,  as 
the  would-be  purchaser  rises  to  leave,  a  few  rupees 
will  be  knocked  off  the  figure  which  the  vendor  has 
been  demanding.  It  is  then  prudent  to  leave,  return- 
ing some  other  day  to  begin  over  again.  The  hours 
spent  in  an  Oriental  bazaar  are  of  such  supreme 
interest  that  they  are  sacrificed  very  willingly  and 
are  not  easily  forgotten.  The  setting  of  the  scene  is 
romantic,  while  the  life  of  the  city  passes  in  endless, 
kaleidoscopic  changes  of  character,  of  costume,  and 
of  men  and  beasts.  It  is  never  wise  to  hurry  transac- 
tions conducted  amid  such  environnienl.  Time  is 
of  no  value  to  the  merchant,  who  regards  the  over- 
tures with  indifFerencc.  He  may  hope  that  ulti- 
mately his  customer  will  become  his  pairon,  bul  he 
would  never  show  his  satisfaction  nor  lose  an  o})j)or- 

315 


AFGHANISTAN 

tiinity  to  drive  a  haggling  bargain.  Around  the 
shops  there  are  always  groups  of  idle  but  profoundly 
interested  spectators.  Some  one  ascertains  the  price 
the  worker  is  paid;  another  inquires  of  the  merchant 
the  amount  he  will  receive  for  it;  and,  in  the  hope 
of  extracting  a  commission  from  the  proprietor  of 
the  shop  or  his  purchaser,  all  are  eager  to  advise  the 
customer  upon  the  merits  of  the  article  he  may  have 
chosen  or  the  sum  he  may  have  offered. 

In  the  silk  and  cotton  bazaar  there  is  equally  the 
press  and  bustle  of  an  active  trade,  a  continuous 
passing  of  gaily  decked  customers  and  busy  traders 
—  from  India  with  caravans  of  silk,  from  Turkestan 
with  bales  of  printed  cottons,  plain  calicoes,  and 
other  articles  of  Russian  manufacture,  merchants 
and  itinerant  traders  from  the  most  distant  parts  of 
Afghanistan,  from  Persia,  and  from  Kashgar.  There 
is,  too,  a  w^onderful  blaze  of  colour  in  the  silk  stalls, 
while  the  display  of  goods  in  the  cotton  shops  reveals 
a  various  assortment  of  English  clothing  —  cotton 
and  merino  vests,  men's  shirts,  drawers,  and  socks  — 
and  a  variety  of  coloured  w^aistbands,  a  weird  col- 
lection of  ties,  and  some  really  startling  handkerchiefs 
from  India.  These  stalls,  whether  their  effects  are 
imported  from  India  or  from  Turkestan,  are  mostly  in 
the  keeping  of  Hindoos,  who  transact  a  very  profit- 
able business  with  their  Afghan  masters.  Never- 
theless, long  intercourse  with  Afghanistan  has  quite 
crushed  the  Hindoo,  obliterating  all  trace  of  his  orig- 
inal individuality,  and  emphasising  his  inborn  humil- 
ity and  lack  of  spirit.     In  Kabul  the  Hindoos  pay 

316 


KABUL    AND    ITS    BAZAARS 

a  poll-tax  and  wear  turbans,  which  may  be  only  red 
or  yellow  —  a  similar  rule  prevailing  in  Kandahar. 
Formerly  they  affected  the  red,  the  blue  lungi, 
which  is  prohibited  to  them,  being  favoured  by  the 
Afghans.  Similar  indications  of  prosperity  may  be 
found  in  the  skin  bazaar,  where  the  furriers  are  en- 
gaged in  making  the  fur  coats  for  which  Kabul  has 
become  famous.  Here  there  are  several  kinds  of 
expensive  furs  such  as  marten,  a  variety  of  red  fox, 
squirrel,  wild  cat,  and  astrakhan.  Over  the  latter  fur 
the  Amir  exercises  a  monopoly.  The  cheaper  kinds 
are  put  to  numerous  purposes,  figuring  as  lining  for 
cloaks,  hats,  and  high  boots  of  the  Russian  and  Tur- 
koman pattern.  Many  of  the  fur  caps  are  costly  in 
production  and  elaborate  in  design.  Cut  from  a 
piece  of  velvet,  trimmed  with  fur  and  heavily  em- 
broidered with  gold  thread  from  Benares,  they  are 
sold  in  the  Kabul  bazaars  only  to  the  richest  classes, 
becoming,  as  a  rule,  a  finishing  touch  to  a  costume 
which,  on  the  score  of  colour  effect,  will  leave  little 
to  be  desired. 


317 


INDEX 


Abdttr  Rahman,  Amir  of  Afghanistan, 
his  new  administration  of  govern- 
ment, 2:23;  his  character,  298;  his 
rule,  306. 

Administration  of  government  in  the 
provinces,  240-242. 

Administration  of  Kunduz  given  to 
Russia  and  Badakshan,  208. 

Afghan  army,  organisation  of,  133, 
227,  262-282;  character  of  the  exist- 
ing forces  of,  277,  278. 

Afghan  race,  219,  222. 

Afghan  soldier,  bearing  of  the,  144, 
263. 

Afghan  Turkestan.     See  Turkestan. 

Afghanistan,  provinces  and  races,  198- 
222. 

Agriculture,  14,  21,  23,  29,  94,  133, 
159,  180,  199  ^16,  256,  287. 

Amir,  the,  his  power,  230-233,  235. 

Amu  Daria,  historical  river,  75-100. 

Andkhui,  town  of,  216. 

Anglo-Russian  Commission,  130. 

Animals.   See  Cattle.     See  also  Game. 

Appeal,  rule  of,  233. 

Apples  of  (iliazni,  287. 

Arboriculture,  67,  70. 

Archaeology,  54. 

Ark,  the,  ancient  citadel  of  Herat, 
142. 

Ark-i-nao,  new  citadel  of  Herat,  142. 

Army,  the,  of  Afghanistan,  262-282; 
its  improvement  by  Abdur  Hahinan, 
271-274;  its  decay  after  his  death, 
276. 


Army  wages,  264,  267,  272. 

Artillery,  268. 

Artisans  and  craftsmen,  314. 


Bad.akshan,  pro\dnce,  boundaries, 
200;  incorporated  with  Turkestan, 
207. 

Bakwa  plain,  tradition  of,  155. 

Bala  Hissar,  ancient  palace  of,  291. 

Bala  Murghab,  fortress  of,  132. 

Balkh,  territory  of,  its  decline,  211. 

Banks  in  .\fghanistan,  65,  181. 

Barter,  method  of,  in  the  East,  315. 

Baths,  public,  161. 

Bazaars.     See  Trades  and  shops. 

Bazaars  of  Kabul,  312-317. 

Beetroot,  cultivation  of,  21. 

Beloochi,  tribe  of,  185,  186. 

Bibi  Haliraa,  mother  of  Habib  lllah, 
her  refusal  of  allowance  and  con.se- 
quent  banishment  from  the  palace, 
300,  301;  her  position  at  court,  304. 

Black  Well,  the,  291. 

Board  of  (Commerce,  242. 

Boats  and  steamers,  90,  97. 

Bokhara,  boundaries  of,  etc.,  25-35; 
population  of,  65. 

Border-line  between  Russian  and 
Afghan  frontier,  130. 

Boundaries  of  Afghanistan,  arbitra- 
tion, 174-178,  192. 

Bri.lges.  60,  68,  73,  107. 

British  Consulati'  in  Scistan,  181. 

Brili.sli  jjoiiticn!  agents  in  Afglianislan, 
their  jjo.silion  and  duties,  308-310. 

319 


INDEX 


British-Afghan  relations,  307. 
Buildings,  public.      See  Public  works. 

C.vBiNET,  constituency  of,  230. 

Camels,  revised  schedule  of  rates  for 
hire  of,  194. 

Campbell,  Lieutenant,  his  influence 
over  Abdur  Rahman,  264;  his  ref- 
ormation of  the  army,  265;  his 
death,  206. 

Capital  of  Seistan  divided,  180. 

Caravan  route,  Indo-Perso,  191-194. 

Cases,  hearing  of,  by  the  Amir,  232. 

Caste,  indications  of,  211. 

Cattle,  14,  18,  29,  168,  180,  201. 

Cavalry,  268. 

Chemaieff,  General,  anecdote  about, 
56. 

Chiefs  of  tribes  suppressed  by  Abdur 
Rahman,  224. 

Church,  restrained  by  Abdur  Rah- 
man, 224. 

Civil  Departments  of  Afghanistan, 
228. 

Civil  War  of  1863-1869,  223. 

Climate  of  Afghanistan,  26,  27,  42, 
61,  62,  69,  169,  200,  218,  287. 

Coins  of  Afghanistan,  244. 

Consulates,  foreign,  in  Afghanistan 
and  Persia,  181,  182. 

Corruption  in  public  office,  226. 

Costume,  40,  165,  185,  260,  287,  316, 
317. 

Cotton  industry,  29,  62,  63,  64, 
72. 

Court  life  at  Afghanistan,  299-305. 

Court  of  First  Instance,  233. 

Criminal  Law,  234. 

Crops  growTi  in  Afghanistan,  257. 

Currency  re-established  in  Afghan- 
istan, 243,  244. 

Customs  Bureau,  established  at  Koh- 
i-Malik-i-Siah,  194. 


Darwaza  Lahori  Bazaar,  313. 

Decline  of  Herat,  148. 

Dil  Khusha  Palace  now  in  process  of 

construction,  291. 
Diseases,  46,  115,  125,  170,  189,  196. 
Districts,   division   of,   in  Kandahar, 

163. 
Divorce  in  Afghanistan,  241,  301. 
Dress.      See  Costume. 
Duties  of  provincial  officers,  240. 
Dyes,  sale  of,  210. 

Ecclesiastical  Court,  241. 
Economic    position    of    Afghanistan 

under  Habib  Lllah,  249. 
Erg,  palace  of  the,  292-296. 
Exports  and  imports,  17,  63,  69,  151, 

166,  249-255. 

Far.\h,  town  of,  its  decline,  153. 

Farming  in  Afghanistan,  256. 

Ferries,  98-100,  153. 

Fishing  industry,  17. 

Food  of  the  Afghans,  256,  257. 

Forts,  lack  of,  in  Afghanistan,  281. 

Fruit   farming   in   Afghanistan,    256, 

287;  fruit  market,  313. 
Furniture  at  Erg  Palace,  296. 
Furs  famous  in  Kabul,  317. 

Game  in  Afghanistan,  112. 

Game  in  Persia,  172. 

General  Assembly,  229. 

Ghazni,  capital  city,  284. 

Girishk,  fort  of,  157,  158. 

Goldsmid  Mission,  174. 

Government  of  Afghanistan,  223-246; 

acknowledged   to   be   independent, 

307. 
Grain,  cultivation  of  18,  159,  199,  202, 

257,  287. 
Gunpowder,  manufacture  of,  154. 
Guthrie,  IVIr.  T.  B.,  310. 


320 


INDEX 


Habib  Ullah,  Amir  of  Afghanistan, 
his  indifference  to  military  matters, 
275;  promise  of  a  change  in  his 
attitude,  277,  279;  his  appearance 
and  manner,  297;  his  domestic 
situation,  299-301;  his  wives,  301; 
his  birth,  304;  his  political  policy, 
306. 

Hamun  Lake,  a  phenomenon,  172. 

Harem,  its  power  in  Court  circles,  301; 
description  of  the  present  one,  302, 
303. 

Helmund  River,  155-157,  180. 

Herat,  province  of,  137-149;  boun- 
daries, 203;  divisions,  204. 

Herat,  city  of,  fortifications  of,  138- 
143. 

Herati,  the,  as  soldiers,  143. 

Hills  of  Quetta,  184. 

Hindoo  merchants,  165. 

Hindoos  as  money-lenders,  211. 

Horses,  dealing  in,  148,  167. 

Hospitals.     See  Public  works. 

Hostages,  237. 

Houses,  35,  37,  47.  146,  162.  210,  286. 

Iletsk  salt  mines,  13. 

Imports.     See  Exports. 

Industries  of  Afghanistan,  29,  62,  72, 

97,  148,  154,  201.  256,  258-261, 287. 

314. 
Infantry,  269. 

Irregular  Afghan  Horse,  the,  269. 
Irrigation,  26,  55,  94,  122,  128,  135, 

179,  216. 

Kabul,  province  of,  boundaries  of, 
198;  description  and  history  of,  288. 

Kagan,  station  of,  64. 

Kandahar,  city  of,  159-170;  boun- 
daries, 205. 

Kelat-i-Ghilzai,  port  of.  283. 

Key  of  India,  the,  137. 


Khanabad,  town  of,  209. 
Khulm,  decay  of,  208. 
Kotwal,  the,  his  power,  241. 
Kunduz,  districts  of,  207. 
Kushk  Valley,  127. 
Kushkinski  Post,  110-114. 

Labour  of  women,  186. 
Lakes  of  Afghanistan,  76,  172. 
Laws,  method  of  making  changes  in, 

230. 
Laws  of  Afghanistan,  231,  234. 
Libraries,  43. 
Live  stock  raising,  14,  18,  29,  168,  180, 

199,  201,  216. 
Loans  to  traders  from  Kabul  Treasury, 

246. 

Macnaghten,  Sir  William,  313. 

Maimana,  province  of,  216. 

Malaria,  46,  58,  103,  106,  109,  114. 

Manners  and  customs,  32.  54,  113, 
161.  165,  199,  213,  296. 

Manufacture  of  sheepskin  coats,  259. 

Martin,  Sir  Acquin,  310. 

Maruchak,  fortress  of,  131. 

McMahon,  Major,  his  appointment 
as  British  Commissioner  on  the  (k»- 
marcation  of  Perso-Afghan  boun- 
dary, 175. 

Men,  dress  of.     See  Costume. 

Merchants  in  Kandahar,  164-166. 

Merv,  district  of,  46-53,  74. 

Military  cstabli.shments  at  Balkh,  214. 

Military  roads  opened  up  by  Abdur 
Rahman,  280,  283. 

Militia,  29,  43,  68,  74,  105,  110,  129, 
1.'52,  143,  158,  183,  216.  227. 

Miller,  Mr..  174. 

Minerals,  258. 

Mines  in  Afghanistan.  13,  201,  257. 

Mint  in  Kal)ul,  243.  244. 

Mission  of  1872,  174. 


321 


INDEX 


Money-lenders,  211. 

Monuments,  108. 

Mother  of  Cities,  the,  211. 

Murghab  Imperial  Estate,  72. 

Murghab  River,  122-130. 

Murghab  Valley,  122-136. 

Murghab  Valley  Railway,  its  con- 
struction, 101-104;  its  route,  104- 
114. 

Nasr  Ullah  Khan,  brother  of  Habib 

Ullah,  aspires  to  the  throne,  299. 
Na\-igation  of  the  Oxus,  89-92,  94,  98. 
Northern  Border,  the,  75-100. 
Nushki,  prosperity  of,  187. 

Oases,  64,  133,  134,  137. 

Omar  Sar,  brother  of  Habib  Ullah, 
removed  from  office  and  made  a 
prisoner,  300. 

Ordnance  factories,  erection  of,  274. 

Orenburg-Tashkent  Railway,  1-24. 

Oxus.     See  Amur  Daria. 

Pack,  Mr.  E.  T.,  310. 
Palaces,  147,  291-297. 
Passenger  rates  on  the  Oxus,  95. 
Peace  between  Russia  and  Turkestan, 

63. 
Pendjeh    oasis     as     an     agricultural 

colony,  133. 
Persian  railway  projected  by  Russia, 

119-121. 
Perso-Afghan  relations,  174-178. 
Personal  freedom  checked  in  Afghan- 
istan, 225,  237. 
Plague  epidemic  in  1906,  196. 
Police.     See  Kotwal. 
Population  of  Asiatic  Russia,  19,  21, 

22,  27.  37,  44,  65,  163,  172,  189,  210. 

215.  217. 
Power  of  Russia  in  Asia,  1-4,  49-53, 

101,  145. 


Prisoners,  treatment  of,  235. 

Public  works,  43,  58,  61,  73,  74,  108, 

111,  147. 
Punishments  of  criminals,  236-240. 

Races.    See  Tribes. 

Railway    communication    in    Central 

Asia  now  proposed  by  Russia,  101, 

117,  118. 
Railway  plants,  11,  73,  102. 
Railways  in  Seistan,  construction  of, 

190. 
Records,  government,  system  of,  227. 
Registan  market-place,  38. 
Religious  influence  upon  the  govern- 
ment, 224. 
Religious  observance,  offences  against, 

239. 
Revenue,  sources  of,  244,  245. 
Revenue  Office  of  Afghanistan,  242. 
Rivers  of  Afghanistan,  66,  74,  75-100, 

122,  137,  152,  155. 
Ruby  mines,  201. 
Russia,  power  of,  in  Asia,  1-4,  49-53, 

101,  145. 
Russian  commodities.  253. 
Russian  Consulate  in  Seistan,  182. 
Russian  Imperial  Bank,  65. 
Russian    manufactures,    importation 

of,  into  Afghanistan,  152. 
Russo- Afghan  relations.  111,  130,  144, 

174. 
Russo-British  relations  on  the  frontier, 

116,  174. 
Russo-Chinese  Bank,  65. 

Sabzawab  district,  fertility  of,  150; 

fortification  of,  152. 
Salt  mines,  13,  201. 
Samarkand,  province  of,  36,  41. 
Sangalak  River,  215. 
Sanitary  conditions,  146. 
Saxaoul,  desert  shrub,  71. 


322 


INDEX 


Seistan,  district  of,  171-197. 

Shah  Ara  Palace,  297. 

Shops.     See  Trades  and  shops. 

Silk,  production  of,  258. 

Sirdar  Mohammed  Omar  Khan,  son 
of  Bibi  Halima,  his  right  to  the 
throne,  305. 

Sirdars,  power  of,  223. 

Slavery  in  Afghanistan,  168. 

Slee,  Mr.,  191. 

Spies  of  the  Amir,  238. 

Streets  of  Herat,  146. 

Streets  of  Kandahar,  162. 

Succession  to  the  throne,  departure 
from  usual  custom  by  Abdur  Rah- 
man, 304. 

Sunmier  resort  of  Mazar-i-Sharif,  214. 

Supreme  Council,  229. 

Tashkent,  district  of,  23,  42-45. 
Tashkurgan,  great  trade  mart,  209. 
Taxation  in  Seistan,  180. 
Taxes  on  various  crafts  and  trades, 

167,  217,  245. 
Tomb  of  Ahmed  Shah  Durani,  161. 
Tomb  of  Hazrat  Ali,  veneration  of, 

213. 
Torture,  instrument  of,  234. 
Trade    with    Afghanistan,    obstacles 

against,  247,  248. 
Trade  mart  of  Afghan-Turkestan,  209. 
Trades  and  shops,  32,  40,  48,  62,  05, 

97,  105,  108,  127,  148,  151,  189,  210, 

287. 


Tradition,  Afghan,  concerning  Bakwa, 

155. 
Trans-Caspian  line,  101. 
Travel    along    the     Russian    border, 

84. 
Treasury,     State,     of     Afghanistan, 

228. 
Treaties  between  Great  Britain  and 

Afghanistan,  307,  308. 
Tribes  of  Afghanistan,  219-222. 
Turkestan,  population  and  trade,  22; 

boundaries,  202;  incorporated  with 

Badakshan,  207. 

Uniforms  of  the  .Afghan  army,  268. 

Wakhan,  alpine  territory,  201. 
Water  supply,  31,  46,  66,  73,  93,  112, 

151,  153,  193. 
Weapons  of  defence,    263,   267,    273. 

278;  prices  of,  282. 
Weight  and  measure  in  Afghanistan, 

261. 
Western  Border,  the,  137-149. 
Windmills  in  Husseinabad,  181. 
Women,  dress  of.     See  Costume. 
Women,  manners  and  customs  of,  32, 

165,  185,  301. 
Woodside,  Mr.,  190. 

Young,  Mr.,  191. 
Yulatan  oasis,  134. 

Zebafsoan  River,  66. 


323 


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IWtVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  AJNGELES 


3  1158  00946  818 


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i  ais  book  is  DUE  nn  tu    i 

»UE  on  the  last  date  sta„,ped  below. 


^% 


REC'D  LD-URL 


AA    001  138  306    4 


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